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篇1:高水平英文论文写作的步骤
高水平英文论文写作的步骤
1.Abstract
标准摘要五句话,包含五个层次的内容:
1.1 Introduction: 为什么要进行本项研究,现状中本项研究的缺失或者做了但是存在不足。
1.2 Method:用什么方法做这个研究。
1.3 Data:用什么样的数据来验证你的方法。
1.4 Results:从研究中得出什么结论。
1.5 Implication:得出的结论对研究领域和实践有什么意义(理论与实践意义)
2. Introduction输入标题
2.1 Research background:
目的是证实该研究问题的重要性。
如这一类问题造成的损失很严重,因此研究这一问题很重要。
2.2 Research problem:
在上述的这一大研究背景下,要做什么问题(或者方面)的研究。
在上述的这一大研究背景下,这一研究可以在哪些方面解决现存的实际问题。
2.3 研究现状:
别人已经做了哪些东西,别人已经做过什么,发现了什么样的问题?
2.4现存的研究有什么问题与不足:
别人有什么没有做过?
为什么别人没有做得更好?
并说明这些研究不足会带来严重后果。
2.5本研究的目标(objective)和研究范围(scope):
本研究弥补这些问题中(这些没做过或者做过没做好的问题中)的哪些不足,采用什么研究方法去弥补不足。
陈述本项研究的范围局限,并高度概括本论文研究结论。
2.6文章结构:本论文的后续部分的基本内容架构。
3. Literature review
目的:
Literature review证明与说明两件事情:
一是研究目标的设定是有意义的。
二是你在本研究中采用的方法是可靠的、有效的。
包括三个层次的内容:
3.1对选题(你找到的研究问题)的justification。
即对做过没做好或者没做过的研究问题,在这个研究领域,针对research problem而言,让读者明白本项研究是有意义的。
3.2现存文献中对本文值得参考并可借鉴的东西(包括分析工具和成果);
3.3非相关或者相邻研究领域值得借鉴的东西,侧重于可借鉴的研究方法。
3.2与3.3就确定了研究方法。
补充说明:注意introduction 2.5中的研究目的与研究范围的区别。
Scope:如洪水发生后带来10个后续问题,本研究只考虑了6个关键问题。
在Literature review 3.1与3.2中应该对scope进行说明和辨析,即说明我为什么留下这6个问题,去掉其他4个问题。
小结:文献综述不是综述文献,而是去找到问题,不是为了综述而述。
并不在于对所有的相关文献作详尽描述和总结,应该是对相关研究现状的高度概括。
至此,已经把研究问题、研究目标、研究方法明确了,并且对它们已经证明了、辩护了。
4. Method
此部分主要是对方法的描述。
该部分包含三个方面的内容:
4.1研究策略(Research strategy)
总概研究过程。要做这样的一个研究采用一个什么样的研究策略:即所采用的研究思路。
4.2数据采集的方法
建立在对研究问题深入认识的基础上,需要采集什么样的数据(变量)。
这里的数据的概念是泛泛的,不是指具体的数据,而包括数据结构、变量(考虑的因素)。
4.3数据的分析方法
如数学分析、逻辑分析(推理)、统计模型等数据分析方法。
统计模型(模型的建立、模型校验(模型计算)、模型推断(在算的过程中所推断出的一些结果)、模型评价与对比)。
5. Data
主要围绕data,对你所收集的数据做一个简要的描述,描述所收集的数据的特点。
如从哪个机构得到一个数据,有什么样的特征、变量的期望值、方差、中位数、最大与最小值等。
包含两个层次的内容:
5.1数据的来源、采集数据的时间周期、描述性的统计值
5.2对所收集的数据的初步的处理方法。
6. Results
运用所采用的数据分析方法(即模型的建立、模型校验(模型计算)、模型推断(在算的过程中所推断出的一些结果)、模型评价与对比)得到的模型分析结果。
应该着重对所得出的重要结果进行描述,不需要对所有的结果进行描述。
7. Discussion
Discussion就是针对所得出的结果做横向或者纵向的对比和讨论,包括自己的结果之间的比较、自己结果与别人结果之间的比较。
如果结果存在差异性,并对结果之间的差异性的成因作讨论分析。
这样的差异性分析进一步加强了本研究的重要性。
可以进一步地验证:对所提出的观点做数据方面的支持。
注意6和7的区别:Results强调清楚地陈述研究结果,受制于数据分析方法(模型建立、模型校验、模型推断、模型评价)的框架制约。
而Discussion强调把结果打乱,提出最值得讨论和有意义的结果,是对本项研究所得出结果(results)高度抽象的产物。
写discussion的三重境界:一是得出与人家相同的结果(意义不大)。
二是得出不同结果,但是不讨论差异性成因(需要升华)。
三是得出不同结果,并作差异性成因分析(较高水平)。
8. Conclusion
标题可以叫conclusion,但是实际包含四个内容:
8.1 Conclusion
8.1.1研究过程:对研究过程的综述。在期刊论文中可以不写,但是在学位论文中一定要写。
8.1.2该研究得出的结论:这个研究成果不是Results和Discussion的复述,而是对Results和Discussion的更进一步的抽象和概括。
8.2 Implication:从研究结论中所反映出来的对该研究领域的贡献以及启示,更侧重于启示。
8.3 Limitation:所得出的研究结果(该研究结果)的局限性。
Limitation与scope是两回事,但两者相关,有差异性,其差异性体现在scope针对的是研究范围,在该研究范围内,你的研究结论是成立的,有效的,在scope内是绝对不能被人家挑毛病的。
limitation要承认即使在scope内,由于数据的有限性和方法的不完备性所导致的局限性。
总之,limitation的成因包括两个方面,一是scope所造成的limitation;另一方面是由于数据、方法所造成的limitation。
8.4 Future study
基于两个认识(一是对limitation的认识,二是对本文结论的implication的认识)所提出的后续研究课题。
9. References
就是一个字:consistent,文献列表和标注的一致性。
应该与刊物格式要求一致,不同journal格式要求不一样。
更为重要的是自己论文格式前后要一致,包括标点符号等。
篇2:英文求职信写作步骤
英文求职信写作步骤
英文求职信分为推荐信和自荐信两种,它是书面表达的重要体裁之一,英文求职信写作步骤可以从以下七个方面进行,
第一步:介绍消息来源
介绍消息来源实际上是 的开篇交待句,它可使求职信显得自然、顺畅;而不介绍消息来源,会使收信人感到意外、突然,文章也缺乏过渡、照应。
第二步:表明求职心愿
介绍完消息来源后,应向收信人表明自己的求职心愿,即写信的目的`。
第三步:对个人进行自我介绍
某单位需要新人,求职人也有求职心愿,但这并不意味着这项工作非你莫属。如果你没有干好这项工作的经历、实力,也是难以适应的,
因此,介绍个人 是必不可少的。
第四步:摆出求职优势
仅有一定的工作经历而没有自身的优势和特长,也很难求得称心如意的工作。因此,求职时应表明自己除了具有一定的工作经历之外,还具有一定的优势和特长,这样才能稳操胜券。
第五步:提出获职打算
丰富的工作经验,一定的优势和特长,只能代表过去和现在的情况,如果获职后自以为心愿已了,从此高枕无忧,马虎从事,那也是得不到用人单位认可的。显然表明获职后努力工作的决心是感动用人单位的领导从而顺利谋得此项工作的重要一环。
第六步:请求答复联系
如果单位领导同意了你的求职要求,你必然要请他和你联系,以便你及时做好准备,到用人单位应聘或报到。为准确起见,请求答复联系时你还应当提供你的通讯地址、邮政编码、电话号码、电子信箱等。
第七步:表明感激之情
无论你的请求是否能够得到满意的答复,你给用人单位写信就是给对方添了麻烦,因此你应向对方表明感激之情。
上述七步内容联成一个整体,再加上信尾,就成为一封完整的求职信。
篇3:论文摘要写作步骤
一、什么是论文摘要?
●论文摘要即“摘其要点而发”。
●论文摘要是对论文热莶患幼⑹秃推缆鄣募蚨坛率觥
●摘要又称概要、内容提要。摘要是以提供文献内容梗概为目的,不加评论和补充解释,简明、确切地记述文献重要内容的短文。
●论文摘要就是论文内容提要,是在对论文进行总结的基础之上,用简单、明确、易懂、精辟的语言对全文内容加以概括,提取论文的主要信息。
二、论文摘要起什么作用?
不阅读论文全文即能获得必要的信息。
1) 让读者尽快了解论文的主要内容,以补充题名的不足。
现代科技文献信息浩如烟海,读者检索到论文题名后是否会阅读全文,主要就是通过阅读摘要来判断;所以,摘要担负着吸引读者和将文章的主要内容介绍给读者的任务。
2) 为科技情报文献检索数据库的建设和维护提供方便。
论文发表后,文摘杂志或各种数据库对摘要可以直接利用,论文摘要的索引是读者检索文献的重要工具。所以论文摘要的质量高低,直接影响着论文的被检索率和被引频次。
三、论文摘要应包含那些内容?
摘要的内容应包含与论文同等量的主要信息,供读者确定有无必要阅读全文。
摘要的四要素:①目的: 研究的目的、范围、重要性;②方法: 采用的手段和方法;③结果: 完成了哪些工作取得的数据和结果,; ④结论: 得出的重要结论及主要观点,论文的新见解。
(1)目的:指出研究的范围、目的、重要性、任务和前提条件,不是主题的简单重复。
(2)方法:简述课题的工作流程,研究了哪些主要内容,在这个过程中都做了哪些工作,包括对象、原理、条件、程序、手段等。
(3)结果:陈述研究之后重要的新发现、新成果及价值,包括通过调研、实验、观察并剖析其不理想的局限部分。
(4)结论:通过对这个课题的研究所得出的重要结论,包括从中取得证实的正确观点,进行分析研究,比较预测其在实际生活中运用的意义,理论与实际相结合的价值。
四、论文摘要如何写?
1、应该怎么写
1)文字简明扼要:文字必须十分简练,内容需要充分概括
2)编写时要客观、如实地反映一次文献,切不可加进文摘编写者的主观见解、解释或评论。
3) 结构严谨,表达简明,语义确切。摘要先写什么,后写什么,要按逻辑顺序来安排。句子之间要上下连贯,互相呼应。句型应力求简单,慎用长句。每句话要表意明白,无空泛、笼统、含混之词。
4)要着重反映文稿中的新观点。
2、不应该怎么写
不能冗长,少写无关的东西,语句不能含糊不清。论文摘要论文摘要不要列举例证,不讲研究过程,不用图表,不给化学结构式,也不要作自我评价。
1) 应排除本学科领域已成为常识的内容;切忌把应在引言中出现的内容写入摘要;一般也不要对论文内容作诠释和评论(尤其是自我评价)。
2) 不得简单重复题名中已有的信息。比如一篇文章的题名是《几种中国兰种子试管培养根状茎发生的研究》,摘要的开头就不要再写:“为了……,对几种中国兰种子试管培养根状茎的发生进行了研究”。
3) 要使用规范化的名词术语,不用非公知公用的符号和术语。新术语或尚无合适汉文术语的,可用原文或译出后加括号注明原文。
4) 除了实在无法变通以外,一般不用数学公式和化学结构式,不出现插图、表格。
5) 不用引文,除非该文献证实或否定了他人已出版的著作。
6) 缩略语、略称、代号,除了相邻专业的读者也能清楚理解的以外,在首次出现时必须加以说明。
目前摘要编写中的主要问题有:要素不全,或缺目的,或缺方法;出现引文,无独立性与自明性;繁简失当。
3.摘要的基本规范
(1)应以第三人称写作.摘要是完整的短文,具有独立性,可以单独使用.即使不看论文全文的内容,仍然可以理解论文的主要内容,作者的新观点和想法以及论文所要实现的目的,采取的方法,研究的结果与结论.
(2)叙述完整,突出逻辑性,短文结构要合理.
(3)文字简明扼要,不容赘言,采用直接表述的方法,不使用不必要的文学修饰,做到用最少的文字提供最大的信息量.
五、摘要的分类
按摘要的不同功能来划分,大致有如下3种类型。
1.报道性摘要
报道性摘要是指明一次文献的主题范围及内容梗概的简明摘要,相当于简介。报道性摘要一般用来反映科技论文的目的、方法及主要结果与结论,在有限的字数内向读者提供尽可能多的定性或定量的信息,充分反映该研究的创新之处。科技论文如果没有创新内容,如果没有经得起检验的与众不同的方法或结论,是不会引起读者的阅读兴趣的;所以建议学术性期刊(或论文集)多选用报道性摘要,用比其他类摘要字数稍多的篇幅,向读者介绍论文的主要内容。以“摘录要点”的形式报道出作者的主要研究成果和比较完整的定量及定性的信息。篇幅以300字左右为宜。
2.指示性摘要
指示性摘要是指明一次文献的论题及取得的成果的性质和水平的摘要,其目的是使读者对该研究的主要内容(即作者做了什么工作)有一个轮廓性的了解。创新内容较少的论文,其摘要可写成指示性摘要,一般适用于学术性期刊的简报、问题讨论等栏目以及技术性期刊等只概括地介绍论文的论题,使读者对论文的主要内容有大致的了解。篇幅以100字左右为宜。
3.报道-指示性摘要
报道-指示性摘要是以报道性摘要的形式表述论文中价值最高的那部分内容,其余部分则以指示性摘要形式表达。篇幅以100~200字为宜。
以上3种摘要分类形式都可供作者选用。一般地说,向学术性期刊投稿,应选用报道性摘要形式;只有创新内容较少的论文,其摘要可写成报道-指示性或指示性摘要。论文发表的最终目的是要被人利用。如果摘要写得不好,在当今信息激增的时代论文进入文摘杂志、检索数据库,被人阅读、引用的机会就会少得多,甚至丧失。一篇论文价值很高,创新内容很多,若写成指示性摘要,可能就会失去较多的读者。在这种情况下,如果作者摘要写得过简,编辑在退修时应提醒其修改。
六、错误示范
现实之中很多论文摘要,都写成论文简介或论文简评,而不是写成文章观点浓缩,经常被写成如下形式:
例一:本文简述西方高等教育膨胀历史与阐释西方高等教育膨胀的主要理论,分析大众高等教育学说在汉语语境中的误读,揭示西方大众高等教育背后种种事实与大众高等教育带给西方国家的种种两难困境,指出大众高等教育不适合中国国情,中国高等教育应该走大众教育与精英教育并举的发展道路。
例二:本文第一步界定人格、人格教育及健全人格,第二步以相关界定为基础考察现代大学教育中人格教育的绩效与常见大学生人格问题,第三步描述与分析佛教慧学对现代大学教育中人格教育的作用。
例三:本文第一节界定职业教育文化课与述评中职高职衔接教育文化脱节与重复现象;第二节一般性探讨课程衔接与课程衔接策略;第三节具体研究两种共同性课程衔接策略,并提出以共同性衔接策略为平台寻求特殊性衔接策略。
例四:“网络文化与网上阅读”是……选修课。本文介绍该课程设置缘由,课程内容,与教学方法、过程及考核,展示现代教育技术与……学科教学与研究整合的潜力。本文还简述由该课程引发的有关思考。
[论文摘要写作步骤]
篇4:论文写作的步骤是什么
一、确定论文选题
论文的选题很重要,选题新颖的论文容易得到关注,同时也反映了你的创新能力。确定论文选题可以从以下几个方面考虑:你所感兴趣的话题;目前的热点话题;你有深入关注或研究的话题;实战部门急需要解决的问题。
二、查找资料
查找资料要围绕选题进行。查找资料不局限于选题范围,只要是与选题相关的文献都可以作为参考资料。参考文献数量应不少于20篇。写作论文一定要有一定的参考资料阅读量。
文科性论文还应收集相关的已有案例和数据。只有通过案例和数据的归纳,才能形成论文的一定的理论体系。
三、认真阅读资料
阅读资料尤其是他人的文献,要看现有文献提出了什么样的相关观点?那些观点尚未提出?
四、拟写论文写作提纲
作为一篇论文框架,一般包括前言(研究的背景、目的、意义等);论题的研究现状;论题所存在问题的分析;解决存在问题的对策等。
在论文论证存在问题和对策时要有证据,文科性文章证据一般包括已有案例和权威性或者是自己调研得来的数据。
当案例和数据不足以说明问题和对策时还应再补充收集!
篇5:论文的写作步骤和要求
论文的写作步骤和要求
一、论文写作的要求
下面按论文的结构顺序依次叙述。
(一)论文——题目科学论文都有题目,不能“无题”。论文题目一般20字左右。题目大小应与内容符合,尽量不设副题,不用第1报、第2报之类。论文题目都用直叙口气,不用惊叹号或问号,也不能将科学论文题目写成广告语或新闻报道用语。
(二)论文——署名科学论文应该署真名和真实的工作单位。主要体现责任、成果归属并便于后人追踪研究。严格意义上的论文作者是指对选题、论证、查阅文献、方案设计、建立方法、实验操作、整理资料、归纳总结、撰写成文等全过程负责的人,应该是能解答论文的有关问题者。现在往往把参加工作的人全部列上,那就应该以贡献大小依次排列。论文署名应征得本人同意。学术指导人根据实际情况既可以列为论文作者,也可以一般致谢。行政领导人一般不署名。
(三)论文——引言 是论文引人入胜之言,很重要,要写好。一段好的论文引言常能使读者明白你这份工作的发展历程和在这一研究方向中的位置。要写出论文立题依据、基础、背景、研究目的。要复习必要的文献、写明问题的发展。文字要简练。
(四)论文——材料和方法 按规定如实写出实验对象、器材、动物和试剂及其规格,写出实验方法、指标、判断标准等,写出实验设计、分组、统计方法等。这些按杂志 对论文投稿规定办即可。
(五)论文——实验结果 应高度归纳,精心分析,合乎逻辑地铺述。应该去粗取精,去伪存真,但不能因不符合自己的意图而主观取舍,更不能弄虚作假。只有在技术不熟练或仪器不稳定时期所得的数据、在技术故障或操作错误时所得的数据和不符合实验条件时所得的数据才能废弃不用。而且必须在发现问题当时就在原始记录上注明原因,不能在总结处理时因不合常态而任意剔除。废弃这类数据时应将在同样条件下、同一时期的实验数据一并废弃,不能只废弃不合己意者。
实验结果的整理应紧扣主题,删繁就简,有些数据不一定适合于这一篇论文,可留作它用,不要硬行拼凑到一篇论文中。论文行文应尽量采用专业术语。能用表的不要用图,可以不用图表的最好不要用图表,以免多占篇幅,增加排版困难。文、表、图互不重复。实验中的偶然现象和意外变故等特殊情况应作必要的交代,不要随意丢弃。
(六)论文——讨论 是论文中比较重要,也是比较难写的一部分。应统观全局,抓住主要的有争议问题,从感性认识提高到理性认识进行论说。要对实验结果作出分析、推理,而不要重复叙述实验结果。应着重对国内外相关文献中的结果与观点作出讨论,表明自己的观点,尤其不应回避相对立的观点。 论文的讨论中可以提出假设,提出本题的发展设想,但分寸应该恰当,不能写成“科幻”或“畅想”。
(七)论文——结语或结论 论文的结语应写出明确可靠的结果,写出确凿的结论。论文的文字应简洁,可逐条写出。不要用“小结”之类含糊其辞的词。
(八)论文——参考义献 这是论文中很重要、也是存在问题较多的一部分。列出论文参考文献的目的是让读者了解论文研究命题的来龙去脉,便于查找,同时也是尊重前人劳动,对自己的工作有准确的定位。因此这里既有技术问题,也有科学道德问题。
一篇论文中几乎自始至终都有需要引用参考文献之处。如论文引言中应引上对本题最重要、最直接有关的文献;在方法中应引上所采用或借鉴的方法;在结果中有时要引上与文献对比的资料;在讨论中更应引上与 论文有关的各种支持的或有矛盾的结果或观点等。
一切粗心大意,不查文献;故意不引,自鸣创新;贬低别人,抬高自己;避重就轻,故作姿态的做法都是错误的。而这种现象现在在很多论文中还是时有所见的,这应该看成是利研工作者的大忌。其中,不查文献、漏掉重要文献、故意不引别人文献或有意贬损别人工作等错误是比较明显、容易发现的。有些做法则比较隐蔽,如将该引在引言中的,把它引到讨论中。这就将原本是你论文的基础或先导,放到和你论文平起平坐的位置。又如 科研工作总是逐渐深人发展的,你的工作总是在前人工作基石出上发展起来做成的。正确的写法应是,某年某人对本题做出了什么结果,某年某人在这基础上又做出了什么结果,现在我在他们基础上完成了这一研究。这是实事求是的态度,这样表述丝毫无损于你的贡献。有些论文作者却不这样表述,而是说,某年某人做过本题没有做成,某年某人又做过本题仍没有做成,现在我做成了。这就不是实事求是的态度。这样有时可以糊弄一些不明真相的外行人,但只需内行人一戳,纸老虎就破,结果弄巧成拙,丧失信誉。这种现象在现实生活中还是不少见的。
(九)论文——致谢 论文的指导者、技术协助者、提供特殊试剂或器材者、经费资助者和提出过重要建议者都属于致谢对象。论文致谢应该是真诚的、实在的,不要庸俗化。不要泛泛地致谢、不要只谢教授不谢旁人。写论文致谢前应征得被致谢者的同意,不能拉大旗作虎皮。
(十)论文——摘要或提要:以200字左右简要地概括论文全文。常放篇首。论文摘要需精心撰写,有吸引力。要让读者看了论文摘要就像看到了论文的缩影,或者看了论文摘要就想继续看论文的有关部分。此外,还应给出几个关键词,关键词应写出真正关键的学术词汇,不要硬凑一般性用词。
二、写好论文的`关键
(一)论文写作——材料、观点和文字
材料是写好论文的基础,观点是论文的灵魂,文字是论文的外在表现。材料和观点是论文的内容,文字是论文的形式。形式是表现内容的,内容要通过形式来表现。三者的完美结合是内容和形式的统一。
材料来源于实验。设计的好坏直接影响材料获得的效率与质量。整篇论文是由若干工作单元组成的,每一工作单元又是由每次实验材料积累起来的。因此要善待每天的实验。每天工作时都要考虑到这一数据在将来论文中的可能位置,对每一张影像记录都要认真收集保存。材料要真实可靠,数据要充足。有了异常,要及时分析处理,要保证所得结果可信,排除假象。一篇论文总要有新现象、新处理、新效果、新观点。
观点应明确,客观辩证。不要、也不能回避不同观点。从论文定题到结论,处处有观点,所以观点是论文的灵魂,是贯穿始终的。讨论观点时不要强词夺理,不要自圆其说,力戒片面性、主观性、随意性。要和国内外文献上的观点相比较,也要和自己实验室过去的观点相比较。在比较中分析异同,提高认识。也不要怕观点错误,不要怕改正错误。要百家争鸣,通过争鸣,认识真理。
论文的文字要自然流畅,“言而无文,行之不远”。但也不要华丽雕琢,目的是“文以载道”。论文叙述要合乎逻辑,层次分明,朴素真实,分寸恰当。
(二)论文写作——准备和动笔
论文写得好坏,关键在于准备。会写论文的人,一般总是三步过程。论文写前深思熟虑,全局在胸;充分打好论文腹稿,提起笔来,一气呵成;写出论文初稿后,放一段时间,反复吟读,千锤百炼。
不会写论文的人相反。肚子里空洞洞,脑子里乱烘烘,笔头上千斤重。他们拿起笔来就写,写几下就停。写写停停,停停写写。忽儿找材料,忽儿查数据,忽儿补实验。忽儿撕掉一页,忽儿抄上几句。忽儿哀声叹气,搔头摸耳,咬笔杆,踱方步。这两种人的差别在于准备状况的不同,这是很多初写论文的人意识不到的。写论文的良好准备应该有三个阶段。
1.论文写作——近期(写时)准备
是指实验结束后到着手写作论文前一段时间的准备。应该收齐材料,处理好数据,制备好图表,完成统计处理。然后打好论文腹稿,列出 论文提纲,明确基本观点和主要结论。与指导者和合作者讨论,取得共识。深思熟虑后,一气呵成。其中“打腹稿”是写论文的关键阶段。这时应将所有工作和数据通盘考虑,全局在胸。这就像战斗打响前的运筹帷帽一样,是作者脑力劳动最紧张的时刻。
2.论文写作——中期(做时)准备
会写论文的人不是做完实验后才开始考虑写论文的,而是在研究工作的全过程中都考虑着写论文。论文“题目”和“引言”是论证时各种思考的凝炼。“材料和方法”是在找方法、建方法时形成的,写论文时只要如实叙述就可以了。“实验结果”是在实验设计、实验操作、阶段归纳、资料整理等过程中不断积累、整理而来的。“讨论”是综合平时的思考,同周围人员经常讨论商量,查阅和分析文献等过程后最后归纳而成的,是将平时思考过的众多问题集中几个主要观点以讨论的形式表达出来。“结论”则只须将最终结果归纳一下就可以了。所以会写论文的人,是在做研究的整个过程中不断地自然形成着最后的论文。这整个过程就是论文的中期准备。可见,中期准备以论文题目之始为始,以题目之终为终。题目结束之日,也就是论文中期准备完成之时。
3.论文写作——远期(学时)准备
如果只是着力于做好论文近期准备和中期准备,往往还不能写出上乘的论文,这就要看论文作者的远期准备,也就是学习阶段的基础准备了。这种准备是指对研究动态的掌握,专业基础的积累和逻辑思维、文字表达、分析综合等各方面能力的总体水平。这决不是一朝一夕所能企及,而是终生积累训练而就的。这就是为什么要强调“读书破万卷,下笔如有神”,“尔果欲学诗,功夫在诗外”了。这些平时积累的功夫,决定着作者 论文的写作水平,而论文写作水平又影响着论文的传播。这种能力不是临用时提得高的,而是要作者从年轻时就下苦功的。
(三)论文写作——审稿与修改
一气呵成写好论文稿件后,是要反复修改、千锤百炼的。不仅自己应该反复锤炼,还应请有关人员提意见,最后还要通过编辑部请相关专家审阅。 论文修改时凡是属于写作规格和篇幅方面的问题应按刊物规定的要求修改。作为论文作者,自己辛勤努力取得的实验数据当然十分珍惜,总希望在论文中尽量表达。但 论文审稿者旁观者清,往往提出一些合并或删除的意见。这时作者应该冷静考虑,该列入论文的列入,不必列入的不要列入。写论文只有“删繁就简三秋树”,才能“领导标新”地开出“二月花”。
论文审稿者也常会对所论观点提出意见。这是需要认真推敲决定是否采纳修改的。论文作者毕竟对自己的工作己有过长期实践和思考,逐渐形成了观点。应该说这些观点是有相当根据的。只要言之有理,述之有据,可以对审稿人的意见进行解释,保留自己的观点。但有时 论文作者自己局处一隅,想法越来越钻牛角尖。论文审稿人从更高的角度宏观审视,一针见血地指出论文立论和观点中的问题,这种情况也是有的。这时论文作者就应该认真思考意见的实质,调整思路,反复推敲,决定取舍。既不固执己见,也不曲意迎合。抱着探讨真理的态度,相互交流,共同提高。
论文通过审稿,有些意见不大,稍事修改即可发表。有些要有较大的改动才能发表。有的论文甚至认为基本事实不可靠或基本观点有误而无法发表。论文作者应冷静分析这些意见,妥善处理。一切都应坚持科学的、实事求是的态度。如果自己确认结果和观点无误,那么可以在 论文退稿后改投他刊。同一时候是不能一稿二投的。
篇6:研究生论文写作步骤和技巧
在写毕业论文的时候需要注意什么呢?基本的写作步骤又是如何的呢?下面是小编为大家提供的关于毕业论文的写作步骤及注意要点,内容如下:
【毕业论文写作步骤】
1.收集材料。题目确定之后,要在题目所涉及的领域广泛收集材料。材料一般分为两类,即理论材料和事实材料。理论材料可以到图书馆、资料室、理论性刊物、互联网上按分类目录查找。事实材料,可从图书、报刊资料中,自己亲身接触到的,他人工作经验,工作中的统计资料、案例等查找。有条件的可以亲自调查研究。收集材料要多积精选。选择材料的标准,最大限度的选择资料,应为必要的;最小限度选择资料,应为充分的。收集材料时应注意,真实性(出处;二手资料要与原始材料核对),具体性(数据、比例、比率要确切,不能含混),新颖性(新颖的材料才有新结论)。对资料要“去粗取精,去伪存真,由此及彼,由表及里”的认真研究。有人把它概括为:“捕捉信息、鉴别、浓缩、存储信息”.
总之,收集材料的过程也是分类整理和研究的过程,对材料的比较、思考和筛选,是论文立论和论证的前提和基础。
2.开题报告。
3.拟定写作提纲。提纲的好处,帮助树立全局观点,疏通思路,安排材料及组成合理的笋印等。拟定提纲过程中,为了把准备使用的材料组成一个层次清楚,有严密逻辑关系的理论体系,不仅会有大量的材料需要取舍、增删、调整,而且还要考虑论文的布局、观点与材提纲的写法有两种:一是标题的写法,二是句子写法。无论哪种写法,都首先要拟定标题,论文的标题有两种类型,一是指示论点的标题,即把论点概括而形成的标题。另一是指示课题的标题,即揭示研究的是什么问题。
4.写作初稿。这里主要强调内容提要和正文的写作。
(1)内容提要。内容提要是学位论文的缩影,是一篇完整的短文。它主要包括:说明作者对论文写作课题的研究目的、方法、成果,特别是要说明本文的新见解和创造性成果。文字要简练,并译成相应的外文。注明3―5个具有代表意义和提纲契领的“关键词”.
(2)写作正文。正文是论文的主体部分,通常由绪论(引论)、本论、结论三部分组成。
①绪论。绪论主要应说明研究这一课题的理由、意义,提出问题,有时简单地写一点历史的回顾,本文的基本思路,以及对这一课题研究所使用的方法等。
②本论。本论是学位论文的主体核心部分,应包括理论分析、论点、论述、创新等。这里着重谈谈确立论点和对论点的论述;开拓创新性思考。确立论点和对论点的论述。论点是文章的灵魂和文章的价值之所在。论点在纠正前说的文章中;指前言错在何处,正确的观点是什么,根据是什么。再如主张什么,反对什么。论点要准确、明白、突出。论点是对资料的分析研究中产生的,不要先定论点,然后找材料印证。论点的形成实际上就是对资料进行整理、分析、概括的过程。作者要从资料中理出头绪宋,并从中发现问题。发现问题是解决问题的第一步。确立论点的能力主要是抽象的能力,就是在浩繁的资料中抽出带有规律性的东西。
论述是指用论据阐明论点的过程。论点确立后,就是对论点进行论述了。论述要严密。在论述过程中一定要处理好论点与论据的关系。论点是由论据来说明的,论据又是由论点来统帅的。论点和论据是辩证的统一。在论述过程中,必须使论点和论据形成统一的有机整体使论据很好地为阐述论点服务。材料与观点要统一,把材料组织起来去说明自己的论点。论述层次要清楚,例如把问题分成三个论点,即三个层次进行论述。论述还要以可靠的例证,翔实的材料,优美的形式来表达自己的思想观点,论述的语言要生动、鲜明等。论述的能力主要是指逻辑思维、推理、判断的能力。
开拓创新性思考。开拓创新性思考的目的,是为了使自己对所研究的对象早日有所发现,或早日突破前人已有的成果,达到新的发明创造。李景隆先生对开拓创造性思考问题,归纳了三个基本条件:丰富的贮存;加大信息间作用的概率;加大解决问题的势能。没有这三个条件创造思维不可能形成。这是指读的书越多,收集的资料越丰富,专业水平越高,形成创造性思考的可能性才?越大。而人在大脑中贮存的大量信息,又会互相作用,其结果就会形成新的思考。加大信息间作用概率,就会使创造性思考形成的可能性增大。
开拓创造性思考,除了这三个基本条件外,一些研究者还认为它与作者应具有的品格有极大的关系。这就是丰富的想象、强烈的好奇心和对问题的浓厚的兴趣。
创造性思维能给我们以新的志向、新的境界、新的思想、新的创造力量。有了创造性思维,才能从一般的见解中看到别人难以发现的闪光处,具备高人一筹的远见卓识,从而攀登别人无法达到的高度。
国外管理学家提出10种可以启迪创新思维的方法,可供参考:a.求异法,b.发现法,c.尝试法,d.实际法(直接动手),e.求证法,f设计法,S.幻想法,h.反思法,i.导思法(逆向思维),l观察法。10种方法可单独也可结合运用。(见企业家新观念P454)
③结论。结论是整篇论文的总结。结论的'写法可以对全文总结,提出有待进一步研究的问题、展望等。总结应该鲜明、精炼、完整和准确。
撰写正文必须注意按照写作提纲用心起草。提纲体现论文的层次、段落、过渡和照应等细密连贯的合理性。写正文要防止出提纲的大格。观点要准确,行文要流畅。行文方式可采用一气呵成和“十步九回头”的写法。
5.二稿和定稿。在初稿基础上,再反复不断地斟酌、修改,然后论文才能日臻完善。文章要斟酌,修改。改什么,即改观点、材料、结构和语言。结构看层次、段落过渡。结构安排是否完整、富于逻辑性,将直接影响观点表述。
论文定稿打印,必须经导师同意并在指导表上签署意见和签名。打印格式一定要按照统一要求,见结构格式标准(书P6)。打印份数要保证留存一份,答辩委员会成员3―5人,每人一份。
【毕业论文写作注意要点】
一、选题
选题是论文写作关键的第一步,直接关系论文的质量。常言说:“题好文一半”.对于临床护理人员来说,选择论文题目要注意以下几点:
(1)要结合学习与工作实际,根据自己所熟悉的专业和研究兴趣,适当选择有理论和实践意义的课题;
(2)论文写作选题宜小不宜大,只要在学术的某一领域或某一点上,有自己的一得之见,或成功的经验。或失败的教训,或新的观点和认识,言之有物,读之有益,就可以作为选题;
(3)论文写作选题时要查看文献资料,既可了解别人对这个问题的研究达到什么程度,也可以借鉴人家对这个问题的研究成果。
需要指出,论文写作选题与论文的标题既有关系又不是一回事。标题是在选题基础上拟定的,是选题的高度概括,但选题及写作不应受标题的限制,有时在写作过程中,选题未变,标题却几经修改变动。
二、设计
设计是在论文写作选题确定之后,进一步提出问题并计划出解决问题的初步方案,以便使科研和写作顺利进行。护理论文设计应包括以下几方面:
(1)专业设计:是根据选题的需要及现有的技术条件所提出的研究方案;
(2)统计学设计:是运用卫生统计学的方法所提出的统计学处理方案,这种设计对含有实验对比样本的护理论文的写作尤为重要;
(3)写作设计:是为拟定提纲与执笔写作所考虑的初步方案。总之,设计是护理科研和论文写作的蓝图,没有“蓝图”就无法工作。
三、实验与观察
从事基础或临床护理科学研究与撰写论文,进行必要的动物实验或临床观察是极重要的一步,既是获得客观结果以引出正确结论的基本过程,也是积累论文资料准备写作的重要途径。实验是根据研究目的,利用各种物质手段(实验仪器、动物等),探索客观规律的方法;观察则是为了揭示现象背后的原因及其规律而有意识地对自然现象加以考察。二者的主要作用都在于搜集科学事实,获得科研的感性材料,发展和检验科学理论。二者的区别在于“观察是搜集自然现象所提供的东酉,而实验则是从自然现象中提取它所愿望的东西。”(巴甫洛夫语)因此,不管进行动物实验还是临床观察,都要详细认真。以各种事实为依据,并在工作中做好各种记录。
有些护理论文写作并不一定要进行动物实验或临床观察,如护理管理论文或护理综述等,但必要的社会实践活动仍是不可缺少的,只有将实践中得来的素材上升到理论,才有可能获得有价值的成果。
四、资料搜集与处理
资料是构成论文写作的基础。在确定选题、进行设计以及必要的观察与实验之后,做好资料的搜集与处理工作,是为论文写作所做的进一步准备。
论文写作资料可分为第一手资料与第二手资料两类。前者也称为第一性资料或直接资料,是指作者亲自参与调查、研究或体察到的东西,如在实验或观察中所做的记录等,都属于这类资料;后者也称为第二性资料或间接资料,是指有关专业或专题文献资料,主要靠平时的学习积累。在获得足够资料的基础上,还要进行加工处理,使之系统化和条理化,便于应用。对于论文写作来说,这两类资料都是必不可少的,要恰当地将它们运用到论文写作中去,注意区别主次,特别对于文献资料要在充分消化吸收的基础上适当引用,不要喧宾夺主。对于第一手资料的运用也要做到真实、准确、无误。
五、论文写作提纲
拟写论文提纲也是论文写作过程中的重要一步,可以说从此进入正式的写作阶段。首先,要对学术论文的基本型(常用格式)有一概括了解,并根据自己掌握的资料考虑论文的构成形式。对于初学论文写作者可以参考杂志上发表的论文类型,做到心中有数;其次,要对掌握的资料做进一步的研究,通盘考虑众多材料的取舍和运用,做到论点突出,论据可靠,论证有力,各部分内容衔接得体。第三,要考虑论文提纲的详略程度。论文提纲可分为粗纲和细纲两种,前者只是提示各部分要点,不涉及材料和论文的展开。对于有经验的论文作者可以采用。但对初学论文写作者来说,最好拟一个比较详细的写作提纲,不但提出论文各部分要点、而且对其中所涉及的材料和材料的详略安排以及各部分之间的相互关系等都有所反映,写作时即可得心应手。
六、执笔写作
执笔写作标志着科研工作已进入表达成果的阶段。在有了好的选题、丰富的材料和详细的提纲基础上,执笔写作应该是顺利的,但也不可掉以轻心。一篇高质量的学术论文,内容当然要充实,但形式也不可不讲究,文字表达要精炼、确切,语法修辞要合乎规范,句子长短要适度。特别应注意的是,一定要采用医学科技语体,用陈述句表达,减少或避免感叹、抒情等语句以及俗言俚语,也不要在论文的开头或结尾无关联系党政领导及其言论或政治形势。
论文写作也和其他文体写作一样,存在着思维的连续性。因此,在写作时要尽量排除各种干扰,使思维活动连续下去,集中精力,力求一气呵成。对于篇幅较长的论文,也要部分一气呵成,中途不要停顿,这样写作效果较好。
篇7:护理论文的写作步骤
论文,我相信大家一定不陌生吧,也是让大家头疼的东西,以下是“护理论文的写作步骤”,希望给大家带来帮助!
一、选题
选题是论文写作关键的第一步,直接关系论文的质量,护理论文的写作步骤。常言说:“题好文一半”。对于临床护理人员来说,选择论文题目要注意以下几点:
(1)要结合学习与工作实际,根据自己所熟悉的专业和研究兴趣,适当选择有理论和实践意义的课题;
(2)选题宜小不宜大,只要在学术的某一领域或某一点上,有自己的一得之见,或成功的经验.或失败的教训,或新的观点和认识,言之有物,读之有益,就可以作为选题;
(3)选题时要查看文献资料,既可了解别人对这个问题的研究达到什么程度,也可以借鉴人家对这个问题的研究成果。
需要指出,选题与论文的标题既有关系又不是一回事。标题是在选题基础上拟定的,是选题的高度概括,但选题及写作不应受标题的限制,有时在写作过程中,选题未变,标题却几经修改变动。
二、设计
设计是在选题确定之后,进一步提出问题并计划出解决问题的初步方案,以便使科研和写作顺利进行。护理论文设计应包括以下几方面:
(1)专业设计:是根据选题的需要及现有的技术条件所提出的研究方案;
(2)统计学设计:是运用卫生统计学的方法所提出的统计学处理方案,这种设计对含有实验对比样本的护理论文的写作尤为重要;
(3)写作设计:是为拟定提纲与执笔写作所考虑的初步方案。总之,设计是护理科研和论文写作的蓝图,没有“蓝图”就无法工作。
三、实验与观察
从事基础或临床护理科学研究与撰写论文,进行必要的动物实验或临床观察是极重要的一步,既是获得客观结果以引出正确结论的基本过程,也是积累论文资料准备写作的重要途径,论文写作《护理论文的写作步骤》。实验是根据研究目的,利用各种物质手段(实验仪器、动物等),探索客观规律的方法;观察则是为了揭示现象背后的原因及其规律而有意识地对自然现象加以考察。二者的主要作用都在于搜集科学事实,获得科研的感性材料,发展和检验科学理论。二者的区别在于“观察是搜集自然现象所提供的东酉,而实验则是从自然现象中提取它所愿望的东西。”(巴甫洛夫语)因此,不管进行动物实验还是临床观察,都要详细认真.以各种事实为依据,并在工作中做好各种记录。
有些护理论文的撰写并不一定要进行动物实验或临床观察,如护理管理论文或护理综述等,但必要的社会实践活动仍是不可缺少的,只有将实践中得来的素材上升到理论,才有可能获得有价值的成果。
四、资料搜集与处理
资料是构成论文的基础。在确定选题、进行设计以
及必要的观察与实验之后,做好资料的搜集与处理工作,是为论文写作所做的进一步准备。
论文资料可分为第一手资料与第二手资料两类。前者也称为第一性资料或直接资料,是指作者亲自参与调查、研究或体察到的东西,如在实验或观察中所做的记录等,都属于这类资料;后者也称为第二性资料或间接资料,是指有关专业或专题文献资料,主要靠平时的学习积累。在获得足够资料的基础上,还要进行加工处理,使之系统化和条理化,便于应用。对于论文写作来说,这两类资料都是必不可少的,要恰当地将它们运用到论文写作中去,注意区别主次,特别对于文献资料要在充分消化吸收的基础上适当引用,不要喧宾夺主。对于第一手资料的运用也要做到真实、准确、无误。
五、拟写论文提纲
拟写论文提纲也是论文写作过程中的重要一步,可以说从此进入正式的写作阶段。首先,要对学术论文的基本型(常用格式)有一概括了解,并根据自己掌握的资料考虑论文的构成形式。对于初学论文写作者可以参考杂志上发表的论文类型,做到心中有数;其次,要对掌握的资料做进一步的研究,通盘考虑众多材料的取舍和运用,做到论点突出,论据可靠,论证有力,各部分内容衔接得体。第三,要考虑论文提纲
的详略程度。论文提纲可分为粗纲和细纲两种,前者只是提示各部分要点,不涉及材料和论文的展开。对于有经验的论文作者可以采用。但对初学论文写作者来说,最好拟一个比较详细的写作提纲,不但提出论文各部分要点、而且对其中所涉及的材料和材料的详略安排以及各部分之间的相互关系等都有所反映,写作时即可得心应手。
1.论文写作的步骤
2.论文的写作要求、步骤与论文写作技巧
3.论文的写作要求、步骤和技巧
4.毕业论文写作步骤
5.论文写作的步骤是什么
6.教育论文写作步骤和技巧
7.本科毕业论文写作思路及步骤
8.议论文写作的一般步骤
9.法学本科毕业论文的写作步骤
10.学术论文写作8大步骤
篇8:英文信函题型作文写作步骤
要求考生根据提纲写一封英文书信,对这类题型,通常分为5个步骤来写:
第一段、文章开头:称呼
第二段、寒暄语句,引出写信的目的:
寒暄句+主题句
第三段、根据提纲扩展主体段落:
主题句+扩展句1+扩展句2+扩展句3
第四段、表明自己的观点,并结束书信主体段落
在最后要他谈自己的`看法
第五段、寒暄句+落款
篇9:英文信函题型作文写作步骤
[实战演练]
Directions:For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topicA Letter to the University President about the Canteen Service Campus. You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline below:
假如你是李明,请你就本学校食堂的状况给校长写一封信,内容应包括:食堂的饭菜质量、价格、环境、服务等,可以是表扬,也可以是批评建议,也可以都有。
篇10:英文论文写作体会
英文论文写作体会
本人近日侥幸在某sci索引的外刊发表一篇论文,想在这里浅谈一下发外文的体会,供学弟、学妹们参考。我觉得发外文时主要注意以下几点:1.论文中必须至少有一个创新点。创新点或是开创性的工作,或是对原有工作的改进,或是提出一种新方法。老外对公式不是很看重,主要看你是否有创新。2.
在外刊上发过文章的同学都知道,introduction部分是最难写的,我认为在这部分中不但要提及题目的意义,别人的研究成果,更重要的是要指出你这篇论文的贡献,以吸引审稿人的眼球。3.
标题也很重要,即要新颖又要体现你的论文的主要工作及采用的方法4.
实验素材要丰富,以数据说话,让人感觉你作了许多工作。5.
要直接用英文写,学会用英语语言思考问题,不要先写成汉语再翻成英语,这样写出来的东西总有点中国英语的味道,让审稿人看起来不舒服。6.
平时多看一些牛刊的论文,摘抄一个常用的'语句及段落,如开场白、题目的意义、章节安排、语气转折等,活学活用。这样写出来的文章看起来就很漂亮了。7.
对审稿人提出的修改意见或建议一定要认真对待,尽量满足他们的要求,如你认为某些意见或建议不妥,要在回信中加以阐述。8.
认真研究所发期刊的参考文献的引用格式。我的一位师兄就是因为这点直接被拒了。
篇11:英文论文写作常用句子
英文论文写作常用句子 -文秘文书
Beginningl In this paper, we focus on the need for l This paper proceeds as follow.l The structure of the paper is as follows.l In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introductionl This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.Reviewl This review is followed by an introduction. l A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.l In the next section a brief view of the .... is given. l In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...l Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.Bodyl Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision‑making logic.l Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...l Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.l Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.l Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..l Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l Section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.l In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM systeml In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.l In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...This Sectionl In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described.l We will provide in this section basic terminobsp; sources of additional information on ... are listedl systematic and rationally structured formatl the basis on which a range of ...operations can be established is shownl THE basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of ... has attracted wide interest / function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l the number of parts needed to l the above statement means thatl the output data is passed to l the proposed method / underlying principlel the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, shouldl this information resides inl this process is composed of ... different ... operationl along with the use of l concerning general aspects ofl due tol for later use in generating...,l in turn,l IT IS believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important tol it can be claimed/concluded thatl it demonstrates the decisions required of l it also provides information to ..l it becomes essential to l let ... be the probability thatl once... is written, it is compiled into...l suppose it is observlogies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Sectionl The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.l The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxSummaryl This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l Finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.Chapter 0. Abstractl A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l The usefulness of xx is also considered.l A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l This paper analyses problems in l This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...l This paper includes an illustration of the ...l This paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedureChapter 1. IntroductionTimel Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive l Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the l The development of ... is exploredl During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ...l A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...l A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.Objective / Goal / Purposel The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non‑experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for xxx.l The paper concerns the development of a xxl The scope of this research lies inl The main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decision making.l These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ...l The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows:l The primary purpose/consideration/objective ofl The ultimate goal of this concept is to providel The main objective of such a ... system is tol The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.l In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:l In order to take advantage of their similarityl more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completedl In this trial, the objective is to generate...l for the sake of concentrating on ... research issuesl A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.l For an illustrative purpose, four well‑known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.l A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methodsl This illustration points out the need to specifyl The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.l Chapter 2. Literature Reviewl A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xxl A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decadel A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.l There is considerable amount of literature on planningl However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx.l Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications.l Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.l Problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.l Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.l Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.l The central issue in all these studies is to l The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.l Applied ... techniques tol Characterized the ... system asl Developed an algorithm tol Developed a system called ... whichl Uses an iterative algorithm to deducel Emphasized the need tol Identifies six key issues surrounding high technologyl A comprehensive study of the .. has been undertaken l Much work has been reported recently in these filedl Proposedl Presentedl State thatl Point out that the problem of l Describedl Illustratedl Indicatedl Has shown / showedl Addressl Highlightsl A study on ...was done / developed by []l Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only withl The approach taken by [] isl The system developed by [] consistsl A paper relevant to this research was published by []l []'s model requires consideration of ..l []' model draws attention to evolution in human developmentl []'s model focuses on...l Little research has been conducted in applying ... tol The published information that is relevant to this research...l This study further shows thatl Their work is based on the principle of l More history of ... can be found in xx et al. [1979].l Studies have been completed to establishedl The ...studies indicated that l Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.Problem / Issue / Questionl Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model. They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.l Remedy / solve / alleviate these problemsl ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolvedl Two major problems have yet to be addressedl An unanswered questionl This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.l An additional research issue to be tackled is ....l Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussedl The three prime issues can be summarized:l The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...l There have been many attempts to l It is expected to be serious barrier to l It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.l There are several ways to get around this problem.l As difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new.l The problem is to recognize xx from a design representation.l A xx problem can trace its roots to xx.l xx [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem.l Several problems are associated with them.l Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.l Most problems in practice are complicatedl More problem surface here.l Hamper effort toward a xx systeml In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xxl The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to developl This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination.l However, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems.l It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx.Chapter 3. Proposed methodologyAssumptionl In the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, i.e. given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied.l We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature.l An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.l Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent.l Main simplifying assumptions are:l This, in our view, is a questionable assumption.Outline / Structure / Modulel An outline of the researchl Information is incorporated within the schemel Is built into ... structurel A nice modular structure.l The principles of ... are applied as modularized criteriaClassificationl A xx system comprises three main components:l Must decompose the original .. into a set of ..l Consists of the following steps:l This is summarized in the following steps:l Can be broadly classified into the following areas:l Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing thel Can allow further breadth of application of ...into morel The following steps should be followedl xx can be classified by a different ways.l Based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following:l This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.Systeml Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal with problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.l The system consists of both ... and ...l The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels.l expert system domains are area of expertisel To develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered:l The system has been developed / designed to determinel The system has proven to be able to l The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domainl The system comprises a ... withl The system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the ... techniquel The system environment must be relatively stablel The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve ...l The development of a xx system has two stages: xx stage and xx stage.l The most essential part of .. system is the ...l The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in the development of l An automated system was developed forl In this case, the system can be considered to be generative.l An interactive automatic ... systeml A .. is commonly thought of as a truly integrated .. systeml Should be capable of being generated from a ... systeml xx is an important part of the integrated system.l The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.l The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base.l The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.Computer Systeml The system has been implemented using Prolog language in an MS‑DOS environment. Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l The current version of the xx program when compiled with WATFOR77 results in an executable code of about 270K bytes. Typical run time, when run on a XX computer (an IBM compatible machine) operating at 4.77 Mhz with 640K RAM, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size (or complexity) of the problem.l Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C‑language and directly linked to the Prolog environment.l The xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds.l It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386‑based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.l The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler that supports the math co‑processor.l Lisp, Prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time.l Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer.l An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this studyl Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations.l While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria -- the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.l This combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriented programming environment (Smalltalk‑80 system) to solve problems encountered in construction xxx.Method / Approach / Study / Process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formula / Techniquel A discussion is presented of a problem-solving systeml To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied.l In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of thel Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report.l This can be accomplished byl This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows:l The above preliminary analysis has provided important informationl Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...l These concepts have been applied to l On the basis of the concept mentioned above,l This can be achieved byl This fact suggests that a new conceptl This was accomplished by taking ...l The preparatory stage is very time consuming process.l Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibilityl There is little hope of achieving successful ...l There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most ..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception ofl Only a few studies can be found.l It is a very tedious process to go throughl It is only when .. has been completed that .. may be effectedl The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.l These approaches are sometimes very tedious.l Several techniques can be usedl A polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows]:l A xx model is constructed/formulated using xx.l A xx model represents an xx by its xx.l A process decision model captures the logic essential tol From the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the ...l The validity of a xx model can be checked using Euler's formula.l Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether ... or ...l Equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system.l A number of heuristic rules have been developed forl Optimum .. techniques can be made more reliable by ... so thatl An algorithm based on the characteristic ... is used to determinel Euler's formula states the following:l The completed model should agree with the formula.l For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessaryl Engineering design models are very well defined; therefore, l To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful.Point of Viewl from an implementation standpoint,l From the point of view of this application,l From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx (CRI for short).l Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.l From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.l The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw [Kusiak AI Implications for CIM p.129]Justificationl We choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and canl Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate.l This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement.l A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc. Such functions are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic.l It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature. Seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis. l Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge. This explains why most FLCs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy “if‑the” rule.Chapter 4. ExamplesExample/ Datal The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique.l The data consists of over xx measurements.l An example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xxl Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc.l The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed.l This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.l There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail.l Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.Comparisonsl As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed.l The method of using xx to implement xx described by Zadeh (1973) appeared more suitablel As discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],Relationl We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.l The relationships appear very complicatel Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics.l These methods are based on the relationship between ... and ...l The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships.l This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.l The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product.Importancel The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making.Consideration / Attentionl Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l Such a formulation does not change further considerations.l Considerable attention has been paid tol Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.l Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid ...l Primary consideration is given to ... components, though others can be accommodatedl After ... has been defined by ..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determinel A number of factors such as ...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision.l It should be noted thatl It is important to point out that ...l These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing ...l We should stress the fundamental importance of the xxChapter 5. Results.Advantages / Disadvantagel One of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study ofl One advantage of using a .. is the ease of preparing it.l The xx system is versatilel It has a very fast decision making processl All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.l It can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor‑based environment.l It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.l The advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following:l However, xx is not without its shortcomings.l In most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx.l Compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%.l The “best case” results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.l Most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx .l Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx.l Some other advantages of xx are the following:l The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts.l It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice.l There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches.l This combines the best features of both techniquesl Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities.Resultsl An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data providedl Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this reviewl Based on the information contained in thisl The result can be categorized into nine classesl The results are illustrated by an examplel The experimental results for each xx time are reported in Table 2.l From the results obtained so far, it seem thatl Because of the inaccuracy of the ..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion.l The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs.l Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed.Chapter 6. Conclusionl From the discussion, one may conclude that ...l Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l The conclusions drawn are also validl In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in...l We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets.l Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this areal A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise datal Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible.l This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept.l The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work.l The scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method.l In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment.Future Researchl Thus, first extension of the approach could be, l Present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory application to l Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity.Tables and Figuresl Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.l The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1.l The xx may be depicted as in Figure 1.l Figure x shows the schematic diagram of the l Figure 1 though 2 provide a ... thatl the architecture of this expert system for .... is illustrated in Figure 2.l Figure 2 gives the outline of an ... systeml Table shows thel as shown in Table 1 and 2l This concept is illustrated in Figure 2l At the top of Table xx are shown two blocks of data. l Each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row‑headings, xx through xx as column‑headings.l A table of .. is developed and significant recommendations are made.CONJUGATIONTo Indicate Additionl additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speakingTo Indicate Cause and Effectl accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, trulyTo indicate Comparisonl in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternativelyTo Indicate Concessionl after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , I admit, naturally, of courseTo Indicate Contrastl and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately,To Indicate Time Relationshipsl after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, whileTo Indicate Special Features or Examplesl for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / aboveTo Indicate Summaryl in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,VERB PHASEl build a .. modell build up the key linkl began a new era in ...l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throughl can result inl carries out ... tasks l production information in order to simultaneouslyl contains all information necessary to describel do not make use of production informationl deals withl end with failurel fetch the information from the model directlyl has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of / been recognized as l BE aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a composite component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to / more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of / shown in / used to effectively guide the searchl makes use of l make upl meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon itl must be justifiedl point outl play an important rolel relates tol rely on l satisfy the needsl determine the total requirements for the ...l uses ... as a key to search for...l without relying onl will be available/ performed/ overlookedNOUN PHASEl a basic technical function of l a critical needl a key / principle feature ofl a substantial impact onl an intensive review was conductedl an increasing need for expanding the application of ....l an important component / function / aspect / issuel each rule is numbered in sequencel each of these involvesl for this calculation, it is necessary to definel in the physical environment / integration ofl in the reality of situations where …l many aspects of l most past efforts have been spent on ...l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.l &n篇12:医学英文论文写作
医学论文是推进医学科学发展的重要方面,是医学科学研研和临床工作总结;是促进医学科研成果的交流和提高医疗技术水平的重要工具,一篇好的医学论文,要求具备两个:
以下几个方面:①医学科研论文内容的科学性、先进性、实用性。②写作技巧上注意文字简洁、观点鲜明、数据准确、内容真实、具有实验的重复性、符合国家标准的计量单位。
一、科学性:
一篇医学论文的首要条件是必须具有科学性。所谓科学性、是指论文所介绍的方法、论点,是否可以使用科学方法来证实,多次实验具有实验结果的重复性。这就要求: ⑴ 进行科研设计时具有周密的考虑,排除一切对实验结果可能干扰的不利因素; ⑵ 设立必要的对照组,甚至双盲对照研究; ⑶ 对实验和观察的数据,要进行统计学处理; ⑷ 无论理论研究和实验研究,对其结果的分析要从实际资料出发,得出正确的结论,切忌空谈假设。
二、先进性:
医学论文的先进性,实际上指这篇论文是否达到一定的科学水准,一篇论文尽管具备了科学性,但不一定具备先进性,对医学论文的先进性,我们可以从两个方面来衡量,一是医学理论水平,如原理探讨,疗效机制等是否有新的突破;二是实践水平,如诊断水平及治疗水平高于一般的医疗技术。
三、实用性:
与临床诊断及治疗的紧密联系,具有可重复性。最终目的解决临床上的疑难病症、如:对癌症发病机制、及对癌症的诊断治疗具有相当的指导作用。
四、医学论文的类型:一般医学刊物中刊用的文章,大致可分为以下几种类型:述评、论著、病例报告、临床病例讨论、学术交流、综述、专题笔谈、经验介绍、讲座、简讯等。
五、医学论文的基础结构:
医学论文的具体撰写,一般可分为题目、序言、材料与方法、结果、讨论、参考文献等项。题目:医学论文的题目必须符合内容而简明扼要、突出重点,能够明确表达论文的性质和目的。题目一般都采用主要由名词组成的词组来表达,且标题不宜过长、一般少于 20 字。摘要:全文必须描述通过什么方法,得到什么结果,资料及数据来源,提出的结论。具体按四要素来书写中、英文摘要:目的方法( Methods )、结果( Results )、结论( Results )、中英文内容要一致。字数控制在 200 字左右。关键词或主题词 3 ~ 5 条。 英文摘要应包括文题、作者姓名(汉语拼音)、单位名称、所在城市名及邮政编码。作者应列出前3位, 3 位以上加 “et al” 。序言:过去研究的情况、方法、目的和所获得的主要成果或特点。文字不宜超过 100 ~ 200 字。 材料和方法:这是执行科研的关键部分, 对于要进行的科学研究工作,必须按照实际情况,在事先: ⑴ 选择好合适的即合乎一定条件的、一定数量的研究对象; ⑵ 采用一定的实验、诊断或治疗方法(包括实验步骤、方法、器材试剂、药品); ⑶ 经过一定时期的观察,相同条件下的对照组,与他人结果比较并综合分析。这部分内容要求简明准确、材料完整及可信。 结果:把全部原始资料集中起来加以分析,在处理这些原始资料时,应是随机地,客观地加以分析。讨论:是一篇论文中十分重要的部分,其主要任务是探讨 “结果 ”的意义。讨论的主要内容包括: ⑴ 主要的原理和概念; ⑵ 实验条件的优缺点; ⑶ 本人结果与他人结果的异同,突出新的发现及新发明; ⑷ 解释因果关系,说明偶然性与必然性; ⑸ 尚未定论之处,相反的理论; ⑹ 急需研究的方向和存在的主要问题。“讨论”的内容也以精简为原则,要能讲清楚主要的论点,已经谈过的不宜在这一节里予以重复。在结论的问题中避免以假设来 “证明”假设,以未知来说明未知,并依次循环推论。
六:医学论文的产生过程:
选题阶段:论文的选题,也即是科研的选题,有时一项科研可产生多篇论文。选题过程一般可分为三步:初拟题目:在这项工作之前必须手中有资料和设想,当然可以是前瞻性研究或回顾性总结,大致可有以下几个方面: ⑴ 临床遇到的罕见病例和疑难病例;⑵ 危重病人的诊治经验; ⑶ 阅读国内外文献、参加学术会议受到的启发,进行技术和方法的移植研究; ⑷ 新药、新仪器的临床应用,新的诊断方法及治疗经验; ⑸ 上级布置或招标的题目。在初步考虑拟选题目之后,应进行全面的文献检索,避免题目类同、结论陈旧和不符合客观事实。在别人研究成果基础上寻找尚未解决的问题作为自己的研究题目。实验研究阶段:这包括应用国外或国内的先进手段、药物、手术方法、检测等进行临床试用、观察和随访调查,并用动物或正常人作对照试验,要求详细记录各种数据及资料,作为论证和评价成果的依据。整理、分析资料和总结阶段:对以上资料进行统计分析,绘制图表,临床分析和比较,得出显效、有效和生存率、死亡率、发病率等结论,并分析其相互关系,引证文献作对比。分析成功和失败的原因及制约因素,并对病因学、流行病学、发病机制进行论证,包括预后的估价。最后对论文作出自我评价,提出有待进一步探讨的问题。撰写论文阶段:该详则祥,该简则简,文字简练,用语准确,恰如其氛,切忌浮夸和虚构。当然,在产生论文以前,每位作者必须学会文献检索,统计学的基础知识的 X2 检验、T 检验、F 检验、相关分析、回归运算、如何选择样本大小等,努力阅读医学情报信息和文献积累,在实践中不断总结,逐步提高写作水平,这样才能水到渠成写出真正好的论文。
七:医学论文撰写中的常见问题:科研设计的选题与立题问题标题太长,主题不突出。标题与内容不符,或题目太大而内容贫乏。 标题单调,主题不明确。 关于题目要求: ⑴ 可检索性; ⑵ 特异; ⑶ 明确; ⑷ 简短。命题方法: ⑴ 方法; ⑵ 结论; ⑶ 探讨。关于把 “ 构成比 ” 当 “ 率 ” 的概念问题:在医学文献中,我们发现有些作者对患病率、发病率、死亡率、感染率等概念混淆不清。关于疗效的确切评价问题:只有观察组没有对照组,有比较才能有鉴别,医学研究结果如无适当的对照比较,就难结论。即使有了对照组,若两者之间没有可比性,同样不能得出确切的结论。以上可见,对照组与实验组一定在性别、年龄、病情、病期、病型、部位、疗程等条件大致相同的情况下,才有可比性,其结果才有科学价值。
病例资料经过有意无意的挑选:有些论文,对所谓 “资料不全”、“疗程未满 ”、“未随访到”的病例剔除不计,这样所得的结果往往比实际疗效高,因为若如此剔除,其结果的科学性必然成问题。更有甚者,对一些数据,主观臆断地以某种原因为理由加以剔除,完全失去了这次研究的意义。考核方法和考核指标的科学性不够: ⑴ 无明确的客观指标、仅凭患者主诉进行考核;⑵ 观察、研究人员的主观偏面性; ⑶ 考核标准过低; ⑷ 数据未经统计学处理; ⑸ 考核方法不够科学。统计学分析的差错。 ⑴ 对照组的设立(随机同期对照、历史性对照、不同地区或医院的对照交叉对照); ⑵ 随机化分组(简单、区组、分层); ⑶ 盲法(非盲、双盲)。以上资料,说明了在考核疗效时一定要注意: ⑴ 病例资料的可比性; ⑵ 客观数据要经统计学处理; ⑶ 考核指标要有严格的科学性(可比性、指标不能过低,不能有主观偏面性等)。
图表的应用问题:图表是表达研究数据,使之一目了然的最简洁方法。一般来说 “图”是从 “表”来的,可以使读者从图中看出一个大概趋势和实验内容。在图表应用上,可用文字表达的就尽可能不用图表,必需用的也不宜过多,一般在 4 幅以内。
八:写作技巧问题:论文要使读者喜爱就必须求 “新”、“精”、“全”。文字简练达到“量体裁衣”的水平,力争达到“少一句不够,多一句嫌罗嗦”的要求。一般论著字数在 2500 ~ 5000 字左右,摘要在 1500 ~ 字左右,病例报告在 1000 字左右。字迹要端正。简化字要规范,不用自选字及自选简化字。各种符号亦要符合规范。其他当有医学名词、药物名词、数字、统计学符号、缩略语、基金资助、著作权法等问题,一切均按国家及中华医学会规定的标准执行。计量单位请按法定计量单位书写。
1.医学论文写作要点
2.医学论文写作目的
3.医学论文写作
4.sci英文论文写作指导
5.医学论文写作要求方法
6.医学学术论文写作方法
7.医学论文写作技巧
8.医学论文写作要素
9.医学论文写作技巧
10.医学论文写作程序
篇13:英文论文写作体会
。我觉得发外文时主要注意以下几点:1. 论文中必须至少有一个创新点。创新点或是开创性的工作,或是对原有工作的改进,或是提出一种新方法。老外对公式不是很看重,主要看你是否有创新。2. 在外刊上发过文章的同学都知道,Introduction部分是最难写的,我认为在这部分中不但要提及题目的意义,别人的研究成果,更重要的是要指出你这篇论文的.贡献,以吸引审稿人的眼球。3. 标题也很重要,即要新颖又要体现你的论文的主要工作及采用的方法4. 实验素材要丰富,以数据说话,让人感觉你作了许多工作,
论文
5. 要直接用英文写,学会用英语语言思考问题,不要先写成汉语再翻成英语,这样写出来的东西总有点中国英语的味道,让审稿人看起来不舒服。6.平时多看一些牛刊的论文,摘抄一个常用的语句及段落,如开场白、题目的意义、章节安排、语气转折等,活学活用。这样写出来的文章看起来就很漂亮了。7. 对审稿人提出的修改意见或建议一定要认真对待,尽量满足他们的要求,如你认为某些意见或建议不妥,要在回信中加以阐述。8. 认真研究所发期刊的参考文献的引用格式。我的一位师兄就是因为这点直接被拒了。★ 任务型语言教学中自主学习的实现方式 (中学英语教学论文)
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