英国简史(英文)

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history

until 1707, this section deals primarily with english history. england and wales were formally united in 1536. in 1707, when great britain was created by the act of union between scotland and england, english history became part of british history. for the early history of scotland and wales, see separate articles. see also ireland; ireland, northern; and the tables entitled rulers of england and great britain and prime ministers of great britain.

early period to the norman conquest

little is known about the earliest inhabitants of britain, but the remains of their dolmens and barrows and the great stone circles at stonehenge and avebury are evidence of the developed culture of the prehistoric britons. they had developed a bronze age culture by the time the first celtic invaders (early 5th cent. b.c.) brought their energetic iron age culture to britain. it is believed that julius caesar's successful military campaign in britain in 54 b.c. was aimed at preventing incursions into gaul from the island.

in a.d. 43 the emperor claudius began the roman conquest of britain, establishing bases at present-day london and colchester. by a.d. 85, rome controlled britain south of the clyde river. there were a number of revolts in the early years of the conquest, the most famous being that of boadicea. in the 2d cent. a.d., hadrian's wall was constructed as a northern defense line. under the roman occupation towns developed, and roads were built to ensure the success of the military occupation. these roads were the most lasting roman achievement in britain (see watling street), long serving as the basic arteries of overland transportation in england. colchester, lincoln, and gloucester were founded by the romans as colonia, settlements of ex-legionaries.

trade contributed to town prosperity; wine, olive oil, plate, and furnishings were imported, and lead, tin, iron, wheat, and wool were exported. this trade declined with the economic dislocation of the late roman empire and the withdrawal of roman troops to meet barbarian threats elsewhere. the garrisons had been consumers of the products of local artisans as well as of imports; as they were disbanded, the towns decayed. barbarian incursions became frequent. in 410 an appeal to rome for military aid was refused, and roman officials subsequently were withdrawn.

as rome withdrew its legions from britain, germanic peoples〞the anglo-saxons and the jutes〞began raids that turned into great waves of invasion and settlement in the later 5th cent. the celts fell back into wales and cornwall and across the english channel to brittany, and the loosely knit tribes of the newcomers gradually coalesced into a heptarchy of kingdoms (see kent, sussex, essex, wessex, east anglia, mercia, and northumbria).

late in the 8th cent., and with increasing severity until the middle of the 9th cent., raiding vikings (known in english history as danes) harassed coastal england and finally, in 865, launched a full-scale invasion. they were first effectively checked by king alfred of wessex and were with great difficulty confined to the danelaw, where their leaders divided land among the soldiers for settlement. alfred's successors conquered the danelaw to form a united england, but new danish invasions late in the 10th cent. overcame ineffective resistance (see ?thelred, 965?——1016). the dane canute ruled all england by 1016. at the expiration of the scandinavian line in 1042, the wessex dynasty (see edward the confessor) regained the throne. the conquest of england in 1066 by william, duke of normandy (william i of england), ended the anglo-saxon period.

the freeman (ceorl) of the early germanic invaders had been responsible to the king and superior to the serf. subsequent centuries of war and subsistence farming, however, had forced the majority of freemen into serfdom, or dependence on the aristocracy of lords and thanes, who came to enjoy a large measure of autonomous control over manors granted them by the king (see manorial system). the central government evolved from tribal chieftainships to become a monarchy in which executive and judicial powers were usually vested in the king. the aristocracy made up his witan, or council of advisers (see witenagemot). the king set up shires as units of local government ruled by earldormen. in some instances these earldormen became powerful hereditary earls, ruling several shires. subdivisions of shires were called hundreds. there were shire and hundred courts, the former headed by sheriffs, the latter by reeves. agriculture was the principal industry, but the danes were aggressive traders, and towns increased in importance starting in the 9th cent.

the anglo-saxons had been christianized by missionaries from rome and from ireland, and the influence of christianity became strongly manifest in all phases of culture (see anglo-saxon literature). differences between irish and continental religious customs were decided in favor of the roman forms at the synod of whitby (663). monastic communities, outstanding in the later 7th and in the 8th cent. and strongly revived in the 10th, developed great proficiency in manuscript illumination. church scholars, such as bede, alcuin, and aelfric〞as well as king alfred himself〞preserved and advanced learning.

medieval england

a new era in english history began with the norman conquest. william i introduced norman-style political and military feudalism. he used the feudal system to collect taxes, employed the bureaucracy of the church to strengthen the central government, and made the administration of royal justice more efficient.

after the death of william's second son, henry i, the country was subjected to a period of civil war that ended one year before the accession of henry ii in 1154. henry ii's reign was marked by the sharp conflict between king and church that led to the murder of thomas 角 becket. henry carried out great judicial reforms that increased the power and scope of the royal courts. during his reign, in 1171, began the english conquest of ireland. as part of his inheritance he brought to the throne anjou, normandy, and aquitaine. the defense and enlargement of these french territories engaged the energies of successive english kings. in their need for money the kings stimulated the growth of english towns by selling them charters of liberties.

conflict between kings and nobles, which had begun under richard i, came to a head under john, who made unprecedented financial demands and whose foreign and church policies were unsuccessful. a temporary victory of the nobles bore fruit in the most noted of all english constitutional documents, the magna carta (1215). the recurring baronial wars of the 13th cent. (see barons' war; montfort, simon de, earl of leicester) were roughly contemporaneous with the first steps in the development of parliament.

edward i began the conquest of wales and scotland. he also carried out an elaborate reform and expansion of the central courts and of other aspects of the legal system. the hundred years war with france began (1337) in the reign of edward iii. the black death (see plague) first arrived in 1348 and had a tremendous effect on economic life, hastening the breakdown (long since under way) of the manorial and feudal systems, including the institution of serfdom. at the same time the fast-growing towns and trades gave new prominence to the burgess and artisan classes.

in the 14th cent. the english began exporting their wool, rather than depending on foreign traders of english wool. later in the century, trade in woolen cloth began to gain on the raw wool trade. the confusion resulting from such rapid social and economic change fostered radical thought, typified in the teachings of john wyclif (or wycliffe; see also lollardry, and the revolt led by wat tyler. dynastic wars (see roses, wars of the), which weakened both the nobility and the monarchy in the 15th cent., ended with the accession of the tudor family in 1485.

tudor england

the reign of the tudors (1485——1603) is one of the most fascinating periods in english history. henry vii restored political order and the financial solvency of the crown, bequeathing his son, henry viii, a full exchequer. in 1536, henry viii brought about the political union of england and wales. henry and his minister thomas cromwell greatly expanded the central administration. during henry's reign commerce flourished and the new learning of the renaissance came to england. several factors〞the revival of lollardry, anticlericalism, the influence of humanism, and burgeoning nationalism〞climaxed by the pope's refusal to grant henry a divorce from katharine of arag车n so that he could remarry and have a male heir〞led the king to break with roman catholicism and establish the church of england.

as part of the english reformation (1529——39), henry suppressed the orders of monks and friars and secularized their property. although these actions aroused some popular opposition (see pilgrimage of grace), henry's judicious use of parliament helped secure support for his policies and set important precedents for the future of parliament. england moved farther toward protestantism under edward vi; after a generally hated roman catholic revival under mary i, the roman tie was again cut under elizabeth i, who attempted without complete success to moderate the religious differences among her people.

the elizabethan age was one of great artistic and intellectual achievement, its most notable figure being william shakespeare. national pride basked in the exploits of sir francis drake, sir john hawkins, and the other ※sea dogs.§ overseas trading companies were formed and colonization attempts in the new world were made by sir humphrey gilbert and sir walter raleigh. a long conflict with spain, growing partly out of commercial and maritime rivalry and partly out of religious differences, culminated in the defeat of the spanish armada (1588), although the war continued another 15 years.

inflated prices (caused, in part, by an influx of precious metals from the new world) and the reservation of land by the process of inclosure for sheep pasture (stimulated by the expansion of the wool trade) caused great changes in the social and economic structure of england. the enclosures displaced many tenant farmers from their lands and produced a class of wandering, unemployed ※sturdy beggars.§ the elizabethan poor laws were an attempt to deal with this problem. rising prices affected the monarchy as well, by reducing the value of its fixed customary and hereditary revenues. the country gentry were enriched by the inclosures and by their purchase of former monastic lands, which were also used for grazing. the gentry became leaders in what, toward the end of elizabeth's reign, was an increasingly assertive parliament.

the stuarts

the accession in 1603 of the stuart james i, who was also james vi of scotland, united the thrones of england and scotland. the chronic need for money of both james and his son, charles i, which they attempted to meet by unusual and extralegal means; their espousal of the divine right of kings; their determination to enforce their high anglican preferences in religion; and their use of royal courts such as star chamber, which were not bound by the common law, to persecute opponents, together produced a bitter conflict with parliament that culminated (1642) in the english civil war.

in the war the parliamentarians, effectively led at the end by oliver cromwell, defeated the royalists. the king was tried for treason and beheaded (1649). the monarchy was abolished, and the country was governed by the rump parliament, the remainder of the last parliament (the long parliament) charles had called (1640), until 1653, when cromwell dissolved it and established the protectorate. cromwell brutally subjugated ireland, made a single commonwealth of scotland and england, and strengthened england's naval power and position in international trade. when he died (1658), his son, richard, succeeded as lord protector but governed ineffectively.

the threat of anarchy led to an invitation by a newly elected parliament (the convention parliament) to charles, son of charles i, to become king, ushering in the restoration (1660). it was significant that parliament had summoned the king, rather than the reverse; it was now clear that to be successful the king had to cooperate with parliament. the whig and tory parties developed in the restoration period. although charles ii was personally popular, the old issues of religion, money, and the royal prerogative came to the fore again. parliament revived official anglicanism (see clarendon code), but charles's private sympathies lay with catholicism. he attempted to bypass parliament in the matter of revenue by receiving subsidies from louis xiv of france.

charles's brother and successor, james ii, was an avowed catholic. james tried to strengthen his position in parliament by tampering with the methods of selecting members; he put catholics in high university positions, maintained a standing army (which later deserted him), and claimed the right to suspend laws. the birth (1688) of a male heir, who, it was assumed, would be raised as a catholic, precipitated a crisis.

in the glorious revolution, whig and tory leaders offered the throne to william of orange (william iii), whose protestant wife, mary, was james's daughter. william and mary were proclaimed king and queen by parliament in 1689. the bill of rights confirmed that sovereignty resided in parliament. the act of toleration (1689) extended religious liberty to all protestant sects; in subsequent years, religious passions slowly subsided.

by the act of settlement (1701) the succession to the english throne was determined. since 1603, with the exception of the 1654——60 portion of the interregnum, scotland and england had remained two kingdoms united only in the person of the monarch. when it appeared that william's successor, queen anne, mary's protestant sister, would not have an heir, the scottish succession became of concern, since the scottish parliament had not passed legislation corresponding to the act of settlement. england feared that under a separate monarch scotland might ally itself with france, or worse still, permit a restoration of the catholic heirs of james ii〞although a non-protestant succession had been barred by the scottish parliament. on its part, scotland wished to achieve economic equality with england. the result was the act of union (1707), by which the two kingdoms became one. scotland obtained representation in (what then became) the british parliament at westminster, and the scottish parliament was abolished.

the growth of empire and eighteenth-century political developments

the beginnings of britain's national debt (1692) and the founding of the bank of england (1694) were closely tied with the nation's more active role in world affairs. britain's overseas possessions (see british empire) were augmented by the victorious outcome of the war of the spanish succession, ratified in the peace of utrecht (1713). britain emerged from the war of the austrian succession and from the seven years war as the possessor of the world's greatest empire. the peace of 1763 (see paris, treaty of) confirmed british predominance in india and north america. settlements were made in australia toward the end of the 18th cent.; however, a serious loss was sustained when 13 north american colonies broke away in the american revolution. additional colonies were won in the wars against napoleon i, notable for the victories of horatio nelson and arthur wellesley, duke of wellington.

in ireland, the irish parliament was granted independence in 1782, but in 1798 there was an irish rebellion. a vain attempt to solve the centuries-old irish problem was the abrogation of the irish parliament and the union (1801) of great britain and ireland, with ireland represented in the british parliament.

domestically the long ministry of sir robert walpole (1721——42), during the reigns of george i and george ii, was a period of relative stability that saw the beginnings of the development of the cabinet as the chief executive organ of government.

the 18th cent. was a time of transition in the growth of the british parliamentary system. the monarch still played a very active role in government, choosing and dismissing ministers as he wished. occasionally, sentiment in parliament might force an unwanted minister on him, as when george iii was forced to choose rockingham in 1782, but the king could dissolve parliament and use his considerable patronage power to secure a new one more amenable to his views.

great political leaders of the late 18th cent., such as the earl of chatham (see chatham, william pitt, 1st earl of) and his son william pitt, could not govern in disregard of the crown. important movements for political and social reform arose in the second half of the 18th cent. george iii's arrogant and somewhat anachronistic conception of the crown's role produced a movement among whigs in parliament that called for a reform and reduction of the king's power. edmund burke was a leader of this group, as was the eccentric john wilkes. the tory pitt was also a reformer. these men also opposed britain's colonial policy in north america.

outside parliament, religious dissenters (who were excluded from political office), intellectuals, and others advocated sweeping reforms of established practices and institutions. adam smith's wealth of nations, advocating laissez-faire, appeared in 1776, the same year as the first publication by jeremy bentham, the founder of utilitarianism. the cause of reform, however, was greatly set back by the french revolution and the ensuing wars with france, which greatly alarmed british society. burke became britain's leading intellectual opponent of the revolution, while many british reformers who supported (to varying degrees) the changes in france were branded by british public opinion as extreme jacobins.

economic, social, and political change

george iii was succeeded by george iv and william iv. during the last ten years of his reign, george iii was insane, and sovereignty was exercised by the future george iv. this was the ※regency§ period. in the mid-18th cent., wealth and power in great britain still resided in the aristocracy, the landed gentry, and the commercial oligarchy of the towns. the mass of the population consisted of agricultural laborers, semiliterate and landless, governed locally (in england) by justices of the peace. the countryside was fragmented into semi-isolated agricultural villages and provincial capitals.

however, the period of the late 18th and early 19th cent. was a time of dynamic economic change. the factory system, the discovery and use of steam power, improved inland transportation (canals and turnpikes), the ready supply of coal and iron, a remarkable series of inventions, and men with capital who were eager to invest〞all these elements came together to produce the epochal change known as the industrial revolution.

the impact of these developments on social conditions was enormous, but the most significant socioeconomic fact of all from 1750 to 1850 was the growth of population. the population of great britain (excluding northern ireland) grew from an estimated 7,500,000 in 1750 to about 10,800,000 in 1801 (the year of the first national census) and to about 23,130,000 in 1861. the growing population provided needed labor for industrial expansion and was accompanied by rapid urbanization. urban problems multiplied. at the same time a new period of inclosures (1750——1810; this time to increase the arable farmland) deprived small farmers of their common land. the speenhamland system (begun in 1795), which supplemented wages according to the size of a man's family and the price of bread, and the poor law of 1834 were harsh revisions of the relief laws.

the social unrest following these developments provided a fertile field for methodism, which had been begun by john wesley in the mid-18th cent. methodism was especially popular in the new industrial areas, in some of which the church of england provided no services. it has been theorized that by pacifying social unrest methodism contributed to the prevention of political and social revolution in britain.

in the 1820s the reform impulse that had been largely stifled during the french revolution revived. catholic emancipation (1829) restored to catholics political and civil rights. in 1833 slavery in the british empire was abolished. (the slave trade had been ended in 1807.) parliamentary reform was made imperative by the new patterns of population distribution and by the great growth during the industrial expansion in the size and wealth of the middle class, which lacked commensurate political power. the general elections that followed the death of george iv brought to power a whig ministry committed to parliamentary reform. the reform bill of 1832 (see under reform acts) enfranchised the middle class and redistributed seats to give greater representation to london and the urban boroughs of n england. other parliamentary legislation established the institutional basis for efficient city government and municipal services and for government inspection of factories, schools, and poorhouses.

the competitive advantage british exports had gained from the industrial revolution lent new force to the arguments for free trade. the efforts of the anti-corn-law league, organized by richard cobden and john bright, succeeded in 1846 when robert peel was converted to the cause of free trade, and the corn laws were repealed. but chartism, a mass movement for more thorough political reform, was unsuccessful (1848). further important reforms were delayed nearly 20 years.

the reform bill of 1867, sponsored by disraeli and the conservatives for political reasons, enfranchised the urban working classes and was followed shortly (under gladstone and the liberals) by enactment of the secret ballot and the first steps toward a national education system. in 1884 a third reform bill extended the vote to agricultural laborers. (women could not vote until 1918.) in the 1880s trade unions, which had first appeared earlier in the century, grew larger and more militant as increasing numbers of unskilled workers were unionized. a coalition of labor and socialist groups, organized in 1900, became the labour party in 1906. in the 19th cent. britain's economy took on its characteristic patterns. trade deficits, incurred as the value of food imports exceeded the value of exports such as textiles, iron, steel, and coal, were overcome by income from shipping, insurance services, and foreign investments.

victorian foreign policy

the reign of victoria (1837——1901) covered the period of britain's commercial and industrial leadership of the world and of its greatest political influence. initial steps toward granting self-government for canada were taken at the start of victoria's reign, while in india conquest and expansion continued. great britain's commercial interests, advanced by the british navy, brought on in 1839 the first opium war with china, which opened five chinese ports to british trade and made hong kong a british colony. the aggressive diplomacy of lord palmerston in the 1850s and 60s, including involvement in the crimean war, was popular at home.

from 1868 to 1880 political life in great britain was dominated by benjamin disraeli and william e. gladstone, who differed dramatically over domestic and foreign policy. disraeli, who had attacked gladstone for failing to defend britain's imperial interests, pursued an active foreign policy, determined by considerations of british prestige and the desire to protect the route to india. under disraeli (1874——80) the british acquired the transvaal, the fiji islands, and cyprus, fought frontier wars in africa and afghanistan, and became the largest shareholder in the suez canal company. gladstone strongly condemned disraeli's expansionist policies, but his later ministries involved britain in egypt, afghanistan, and uganda.

gladstone's first ministry (1868——74) had disestablished the church of england in ireland, and in 1886, gladstone unsuccessfully advocated home rule for ireland. the proposal split the liberal party and overturned his ministry. in the last decades of the 19th cent. competition with other european powers and enchantment with the glories of empire led britain to acquire vast territories in asia and africa. by the end of the century the country was entangled in the south african war (1899——1902). great britain's period of hegemony was ending, as both germany and the united states were surpassing it in industrial production.

world war i and its aftermath

victoria was succeeded by her son edward vii, then by his son, george v. the liberals, in power 1905——15, enacted much social legislation, including old-age pensions, health and unemployment insurance, child health laws, and more progressive taxation. the budget sponsored by david lloyd george to finance the liberals' program brought on a parliamentary struggle that ended in a drastic reduction of the power of the house of lords (1911). growing military and economic rivalry with germany led great britain to form ententes with its former colonial rivals, france and russia (see triple alliance and triple entente).

in 1914, germany's violation of belgium's neutrality, which since 1839 britain had been pledged to uphold, caused britain to go to war against germany (see world war i). although the british emerged as victors, the war took a terrible toll on the nation. about 750,000 men had died and seven million tons of shipping had been lost. in the peace settlement (see versailles, treaty of) britain acquired, as league of nations mandates, additional territories in africa, asia, and the middle east. but the four years of fighting had drained the nation of wealth and manpower.

the postwar years were a time of great moral disillusionment and material difficulties. to the international problems stemming directly from the war, such as disarmament, reparations, and war debts, were added complex domestic economic problems, the task of reorganizing the british empire, and the tangled irish problem. northern ireland was created in 1920, and the irish free state (see ireland, republic of) in 1921——22.

the basic domestic economic problem of the post——world war i years was the decline of britain's traditional export industries, which made it more difficult for the country to pay for its imports of foods and raw materials. a labour government, under ramsay macdonald, was in power for the first time briefly in 1924. in 1926 the country suffered a general strike. severe economic stress increased during the worldwide economic depression of the late 1920s and early 30s. during the financial crisis of 1931, george v asked macdonald to head a coalition government, which took the country off the gold standard, ceased the repayment of war debts, and supplanted free trade with protective tariffs modified by preferential treatment within the empire (see commonwealth of nations) and with treaty nations.

recovery from the depression began to be evident in 1933. although old export industries such as coal mining and cotton manufacturing remained depressed, other industries, such as electrical engineering, automobile manufacture, and industrial chemistry, were developed or strengthened. george v was succeeded by edward viii, after whose abdication (1936) george vi came to the throne. in 1937, neville chamberlain became prime minister.

the years prior to the outbreak of world war ii were characterized by the ineffective attempts to stem the rising tide of german and italian aggression. the league of nations, in which britain was a leader, declined rapidly by failing to take decisive action, and british prestige fell further because of a policy of nonintervention in the spanish civil war. appeasement of the axis powers, which was the policy of the chamberlain government, reached its climactic failure (as became evident later) in the munich pact of sept., 1938. great britain had begun to rearm in 1936 and, after munich, instituted conscription. with the signing of the soviet-german pact of aug., 1939, war was recognized as inevitable.

world war ii and the welfare state

on sept. 1, 1939, germany attacked poland. great britain and france declared war on germany on sept. 3, and all the dominions of the commonwealth except ireland followed suit (see world war ii). chamberlain broadened his cabinet to include labour representatives, but after german victories in scandinavia he resigned (may, 1940) and was replaced by winston s. churchill. france fell in june, 1940, but the heroic rescue of a substantial part of the british army from dunkirk (may——june) enabled britain, now virtually alone, to remain in the war.

the nation withstood intensive bombardment (see battle of britain), but ultimately the royal air force was able to drive off the luftwaffe. extensive damage was sustained, and great urban areas, including large sections of london, were devastated. the british people rose to a supreme war effort; american aid (see lend-lease) provided vital help. in 1941, great britain gained two allies when germany invaded the ussr (june) and the united states entered the war following the japanese attack on pearl harbor (dec. 7). britain declared war on japan on dec. 8.

the wartime alliance of great britain, the ussr, and the united states led to the formation of the united nations and brought about the defeat of germany (may, 1945) and japan (sept., 1945). the british economy suffered severely from the war. manpower losses had been severe, including about 420,000 dead; large urban areas had to be rebuilt, and the industrial plant needed reconstruction and modernization. leadership in world trade, shipping, and banking had passed to the united states, and overseas investments had been largely liquidated to pay the cost of the world wars. this was a serious blow to the british economy because the income from these activities had previously served to offset the import-export deficit.

in 1945, the first general elections in ten years were held (they had been postponed because of the war) and clement attlee and the labour party were swept into power. austere wartime economic controls were continued, and in 1946 the united states extended a large loan. the united states made further assistance available in 1948 through the marshall plan. in 1949 the pound was devalued (in terms of u.s. dollars, from $4.03 to $2.80) to make british exports more competitive.

the labour government pursued from the start a vigorous program of nationalization of industry and extension of social services. the bank of england, the coal industry, communications facilities, civil aviation, electricity, and internal transport were nationalized, and in 1948 a vast program of socialized medicine was instituted (many of these programs followed the recommendations of wartime commissions). also in 1948, labour began the nationalization of the steel industry, but the law did not become effective until 1951, after churchill and the conservatives had returned to office. the conservatives denationalized the trucking industry and all but one of the steel companies and ended direct economic controls, but they retained labour's social reforms. elizabeth ii succeeded george vi in 1952.

in postwar foreign affairs great britain's loss of power was also evident. britain had undertaken to help greece and turkey resist communist subversion, but the financial burden proved too great, and the task was assumed (1947) by the united states. the british empire underwent rapid transformation. british india was partitioned (1947) into two self-governing states, india and pakistan. in palestine, unable to maintain peace between arabs and jews, britain turned its mandate over to the united nations. groundwork was laid for the independence of many other colonies; like india and pakistan, most of them remained in the commonwealth after independence. great britain joined the north atlantic treaty organization (1949) and fought on the united nations' side in the korean war (1950——53).

the conservative governments of churchill and his successor, anthony eden (1955), were beset by numerous difficulties in foreign affairs, including the nationalization (1951) of british petroleum fields and refineries in iran, the mau mau uprising in kenya (1952——56), turmoil in cyprus (1954——59), and the problem of apartheid in south africa. the nationalization (1956) of the suez canal by egypt touched off a crisis in which britain, france, and israel invaded egypt. opposition by the united states brought about a halt of the invasion and withdrawal of the troops.

the 1960s and 70s

great britain helped to form (1959) the european free trade association (efta), but in 1961 the government of harold macmillan announced its decision to seek membership in the european economic community. because of french opposition as well as britain's request for special considerations for the countries of the commonwealth and of efta, agreement on british entry was not reached until 1971. britain finally entered what had become the european community (now the european union ) in jan., 1973.

labour returned to power in 1964 under harold wilson, and the steel industry was renationalized. the country faced the compound economic problems of a very unfavorable balance of trade, the instability of the pound sterling, a lagging rate of economic growth, and inflationary wages and prices. a number of sterling crises were followed by government controls and cutbacks.

britain supported u.s. policy in vietnam. the policy of granting independence to colonial possessions continued; however, rhodesia (see zimbabwe) became a problem when its government, representing only the white minority, unilaterally declared its independence in 1965. another problem was spain's demand for the return of gibraltar. a major crisis erupted in northern ireland in late 1968 when catholic civil-rights demonstrations turned into violent confrontations between catholics and protestants. british army units were dispatched in an unsuccessful attempt to restore calm. in 1972 the british government suspended the northern ireland parliament and government and assumed direct control of the province.

the conservatives under edward heath returned to power in britain in 1970. at the end of 1973 the country underwent its worst economic crisis since world war ii. the balance of payments deficit, after improving in the late 1960s, had worsened. serious inflation had led to widespread labor unrest in the critical coal-mining, railroad, and electrical industries, leading to a shortage of coal, britain's main energy source. a further blow, following the 1973 war in the middle east, was the reduction in oil shipments by several arab states and a steep increase in the price of oil.

when coal miners voted to strike in early 1974, heath called an election in an attempt to bolster his position in resisting the miners' demands. neither labour nor the conservatives emerged from that election with a plurality in the commons. after an unsuccessful attempt to form a minority government, heath resigned (mar., 1974) and was succeeded as prime minister by harold wilson, who moved immediately to settle the miners' dispute.

in the elections of oct., 1974, the labour party won a slim majority; wilson continued as prime minister. the early 1970s brought the development of oil and natural gas fields in the north sea, which helped to decrease britain's reliance on coal and foreign fuel. wilson resigned and was succeeded by james callaghan in apr., 1976. neither wilson nor callaghan was able to resolve growing disagreements with the unions, and unrest among industrial workers became the dominant note of the late 1970s. in mar., 1979, callaghan left office after losing a no-confidence vote.

the thatcher era to the present

in may, 1979, the conservatives returned to power under the leadership of margaret thatcher, who set out to reverse the postwar trend toward socialism by reducing government borrowing, freezing expenditures, and privatizing state-owned industries. thatcher also managed to break union resistance through a series of laws that included the illegalization of secondary strikes and boycotts. a violent, unsuccessful yearlong miners' strike (1984——85) was thatcher's most serious union confrontation.

thatcher gained increased popularity by her actions in the falkland islands conflict with argentina; she led the conservatives to victory again in 1983 and 1987, the latter an unprecedented third consecutive general election win. in 1985, great britain agreed that hong kong would revert to chinese sovereignty in . in 1986, the channel tunnel project was begun with france; the rail link with the european mainland opened in 1994.

a decade of thatcher's economic policies resulted in a marked disparity between the developed southern economy and the decaying industrial centers of the north. her unpopular stands on some issues, such as her opposition to greater british integration in europe, caused a conservative party revolt that led her to resign in nov., 1990, whereupon john major became party leader and prime minister. despite a lingering recession, the conservatives retained power in the 1992 general election.

a peace initiative opened by prime minister major in 1993 led to cease-fires in 1994 by the irish republican army and loyalist paramilitaries in northern ireland. peace efforts foundered early in , as the ira again resorted to terrorist bombings. in july, 1997, the ira declared a new cease-fire, and talks begun in september of that year included sinn f谷in. an accord reached in provided for a new regional assembly to be established in belfast, but formation of the government was hindered by disagreement over guerrilla disarmament. with resolution of those issues late in , direct rule was ended in northern ireland, but tensions over disarmament have led to several lengthy suspensions of home rule since then.

the major government was beset by internal scandals and by an intraparty rift over the degree of british participation in the european union (eu), but major called a conservative party leadership election for july, 1995, and easily triumphed. in nov., 1995, three divisions of british rail were sold off in britain's largest-ever privatization by direct sale. britain's sometimes stormy relationship with the eu was heightened in 1996 when an outbreak of ※mad cow disease§ (see prion) in england led the eu to ban the sale of british beef; the crisis eased when british plans for controlling the disease were approved by the eu. although the eu ban was ended in 1999, france continued its own ban on british beef, causing a strain in british-french relations and within the eu. in , british livestock farmers were again hurt by an outbreak of disease, this time foot-and-mouth disease.

in the elections of may, 1997, labour won 418 seats in the house of commons by following a centrist political strategy. tony blair, head of what he called the ※new labour§ party, became prime minister. in august, britain mourned princess diana, the former wife of prince charles, who was killed in a car accident in paris. blair's pledge to decentralize government was endorsed in september, when scotland and wales both voted to establish legislative bodies, giving them a stronger voice in their domestic affairs. a bill passed by both houses of parliament in 1999 stripped most hereditary peers of their right to sit and vote in the house of lords; the shape of the reconstituted upper chamber is to be studied by a commission. blair and labour again trounced the conservatives in june, 2001, though the victory was not so much a vote of confidence in labour as a rejection of the opposition.

following the devastating sept., 2001, terrorist attacks in the united states, the british government became the most visible international supporter of the bush administration in its war on terrorism. government officials visited muslim nations to seek their participation in the campaign, and british forces joined the americans in launching attacks against afghanistan after the taliban government refused to hand over osama bin laden. the blair government was also a strong supporter of the united states' position that military action should be taken against iraq if un weapons inspections were not resumed under new, stricter conditions, and committed british forces to the u.s.-led invasion of iraq that began in mar., .

blair's strong support for the invasion, and the failure to find any weapons of mass destruction in iraq, were factors in labour's third-place finish in the june, , local elections; the results reflected the british public's dissatisfaction with the country's involvement in iraq. labour, and the conservative party as well, suffered losses in the subsequent european parliament elections, which saw the anti-eu united kingdom independence party double its vote to 16%. in the parliamentary elections the issue of iraq again hurt blair and labour, whose large parliamentary majority was significantly reduced. nonetheless, the election marked the first time a labour government had secured a third consecutive term at the polls.

on july, 7, 2005, london experienced four coordinated bombing on its underground and bus system that killed more 50 people and injured some 700. the attacks, which broadly resembled the mar., 2004, bombings in madrid, appeared to be the work of islamic suicide bombers; three of the suspected bombers were born in britain. evidence uncovered by the british police indicated that the attacks may have been directed by a member of al qaeda. a second set of suicide bombings was attempted later in the month, but the bombs failed to detonate.

篇2：阅读英国小说《时间简史》笔记

“时间”究竟是什么?晚上，我坐在窗前，出神地望着无限的夜空，反刍着刚刚读完，放在一边的《时间简史》。

“时间”，它既看不见，也摸不着。它可以被浪费时间的人无限缩小，几年如同几日一般重复;它也可以被珍惜时间的人无限放大，变成在无限的宇宙中也能看得见的闪耀光点。霍金便是一个可以让有限的时间无限放大的人，他对天体物理学的研究，告诉了我们“时间”的样貌，告诉我们如何“书写”自己的“时间”。

“他机智而清晰的阐释宇宙物理的奥秘……他拥有无与伦比的头脑”——《纽约书评》这么评价霍金，这位出身剑桥大学的著名物理学家。

宇宙的起源果然是非常奇妙的，就像《道德经》所言，可谓“玄之又玄，众妙之门”啊。奇点也好，暴涨理论也罢，都是从观察到的现象的角度尽量解释大爆炸及之后的宇宙如何发展。当然，也会有人择理论，认为宇宙之所以如此发展，是由于我们的存在。

种种理论，都能够解释一些现象，却还是无法对于宇宙之所以有起源作出最准确的解释，所以有造物主拨动了大爆炸的齿轮似乎也不是一句玩笑话啊。大爆炸后的1秒钟，温度降低到约为100亿度，这大约是太阳中心温度的1千倍，亦即氢弹爆炸达到的温度。这是第一次了解到氢弹爆炸能够达到如此的温度。铁的熔点不过1500多摄氏度，熔点最高的材料碳化钽铪合金也只是3990摄氏度，100亿度真的是一个人类无法想象，无法描述的温度——你甚至找不到什么词语去形容它。不过现在我知道了，原来人类已经能够造出爆炸可达10亿度的武器了，想不到究竟什么物质能阻挡一颗氢弹的近距离爆炸。想一想人类还是脆弱的。小到疾病的困扰，大到武器的袭击，每一样都可以夺走人类的生命。

不过从某种意义上来讲，人类也是强大的，可以造出毁灭地球的武器，也可以看到光年之外的星系。《时间简史》不仅仅给我带来了物理意义上的思考，还有生命层次的启迪。智慧这种看不到摸不着的存在，竟也可以反映在几条染色体上，并且经历了30亿年的从粒子到生命体的演变。我相信以后一定会有基因改造人出现，只是不知道那时候人类是否已经冲出了太阳系。

篇3：英国留学信英文

英国留学推荐信英文模板

sample

Dear sir or madam，

As the Vice Dean of School of International Business，Tianjin Foreign Studies University（TFSU），I am writing with pleasure to recom#mend Wang Ye to youresteemed university.

I got to know her personally since 20xx as I was her class advisor. And I taught her International Economics. In my course，she showed her craving for knowledge. She often read relative economic books to enrich herself. And she also asked me to recommend some text books and materials to study. When she had confusion，she always tried her best to figure out the question.

Miss Wang is a self-motivated student. For all I know，her average score is over 85 and she won scholarships every year in the past three years. Therefore，she was selected into the experimental class in the third academic year. This class consists of the best students of Department of International Economics and Trade，Department of Economics and Department of Finance. What’s more，she practiced in a small com#pany to gain experience during the winter and summer vacations.

I am confident that she will be qualified and perform as well as she did in TFSU. Therefore，I recom#mend her with enthusiasm. I hope that you will consider her application favorably. Please don’t hesitate to contact me if you need more information.

Yours Sincerely

Zhu Li（Signature）

Vice Dean，

School of International Business

Tianjin Foreign Studies University

Email：

Telephone：

二、英国留学推荐信段落模板

问候称呼salutation

如果你的推荐信是要给某一个人的，应该加上称呼，例如dear dr. smith，dear mr. jones，等等。如果你的推荐信非常general，你在称呼的地方写to whom it may concern或者不写称呼也可以。

留学推荐信第一段paragraph 1

推荐信的第一段应该说明你和被推荐人的关系，包括你是怎么认识他/她的，还有你写这封推荐信的资格。

留学推荐信第二段paragraph 2

英文推荐信标准格式：推荐信的第二段应该包括被推荐人的个人信息，说明TA的资格、能力，还有你为什么要为TA写推荐信。如果必要的话，可以分几段来描述细节。

留学推荐信第三段paragraph 3

如果是推荐被推荐人应聘某个职位，推荐信应该描述这个人的能力能适合TA所要求的职位。可以参考招聘广告上对职位的要求和被推荐人的简历一起来写。

简短总结summary

主要内容叙述清楚后，还应该加一个简短的总结。总结部分应该再简述一下你为什么要推荐这个人。可以写上I highly recommend the person，I recommend the person without reservation或者其他类似的话。

结尾conclusion

英文推荐信的结尾部分，应该写上你愿意提供更多的详细信息，要注明你的电话号码，联系方式和email address，最后，还要写上下面这一段：

sincerely，

writers name

title

（tel number，mailing address）

三、英国留学推荐信内容

1、介绍推荐人和被推荐人

推荐人要陈述自己是谁，在哪里就职，和被推荐人是什么关系。其中最重要的就是要写清楚推荐人和申请人的关系。如果平时接触的不是很多，可以侧重说明两人一起合作的深度。无论从哪种角度，都要传达出推荐人对于被推荐人很了解，而非一面之缘的信息。跨专业的学生不用担心老师不是相关专业的，推荐信突出是学术能力和学科兴趣。

2、对被推荐人的综合评价

推荐人可以先用一句或者一段话来描述申请人，然后再描述申请人的客观表现，比如平时总是会在课上举手问问题，能找到别人没注意到的细节，或者会对同班同学课上回答的问题进行积极的反馈和补充等等。等于先下定义，然后再列举例子来支撑前面的综合评价。

3、展示优秀品质和学术潜力

除了课堂上的`表现，推荐人还可以通过和申请人的共事过程中的体验来侧面体现申请人的优秀品质，比如：交上来的论文总是结构清晰，格式准确，来体现做事仔细，对学术认真；或者除了规定的reading list之外，申请人还经常能在课上旁征博引别的学术资源，其实也就说明这个学生有学习主动性，而且学术广度比较大。注意这里不要写推荐人不可能知道的事情，比如经常“学习到很晚”或者“经常课下和同学发邮件交流学习”等等，否则整封推荐信就会显得失真了。

四、英国留学推荐信注意事项

填写推荐人信息，直接上传推荐信

大部分学校都是接受open reference的（比如纽卡，格拉斯哥等），即申请人可以直接拿到老师的推荐信，在填写网申的时候，直接上传到申请系统之中即可。这一类提交推荐信的方式是最简单有效的。

但是，如果你的推荐老师是国外的老师并且不会将推荐信直接交给你，那么在填写网申的时候，一定要注意在referee板块中，选择发送邮件或者链接给老师，在提交网申之后，也要及时联系老师，请老师尽快提交推荐信，这样学校才可以审理你的申请。

填写推荐人信息，通过邮件链接上传推荐信

有些学校是不接受open reference，即你不需要在网申系统中上传推荐信，只需要将老师的信息填写正确（尤其是邮箱地址），提交网申之后，系统会自动发送邮件给老师，由老师自己来上传推荐信.老师点击邮件中的链接进去，填写自己的信息，上传推荐信即可。

篇4：英国的英文缩写是什么

英国的英文缩写是什么

全称The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

简称UK

关于英国的英语作文

The Englishman love to behave gentlemanly and the Englishwoman love to behave ladily.They also show their respect to ladies.They always say“ Lady first”.In their daily life.the English pay attention to their appearance.They dress neatly.They shake hands when they meet other.When they are with others,they usually say “please”“thank you”“sorry” and so on.The breakfast in Britain is very rich.Usually there are all kinds of egg products,oatmeal,bacon,ham,sausages,butter,jam,bread,milk,juice,coffee and so on.They are popular with the western countries.What's more,the English like drinking tea.They have the habit of drink afternoon tea at about 3 in the afternoon.They enjoy drinking tea and treat it as a kind of seeing friends.

关于英国的英语介绍

England's full title is “Great Britain and the Northern Ireland united kingdom”, by approaches northeast the Europe continent the seacoast British archipelago majority of islands to be composed. She separates North Sea, Straits of Dover and the English Channel faces one another with the Europe continent, is an island country. The English total area approximately 240,000 square kilometers, the population nearly 59 million, according to the history, the geography and the national character divides into England, Scotland, Wales, the Northern Ireland four parts, English people account for the total population 80%. The English inhabitants mostly believe in the Christianity protestantism, the Northern Ireland area partial inhabitants believe Catholicism. The English winter warm summer is cool, is the oceanity temperate climate.

National survey(国家概况)

England is the modern times Industrial Revolution place of origin, the official name “the united kingdom”, the full title “Great Britain and the Northern Ireland united kingdom (the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)”, the national area altogether 244,000 square kilometers, the inhabitant multi- letters Christianity protestantism, the Northern Ireland area partial inhabitants believe Catholicism, some Englishes also believe in the Islamism, Buddhism, Hinduism, the race, the Judaism and so on.

Geographical position(地理位置)

The entire boundary by approaches northeast the Europe continent the seacoast British archipelago majority of islands to be composed, separates North Sea, Straits of Dover and the English Channel faces one another with the Europe continent, is an island country. Coastline total length 11,000 kilometers. The east side British island is in the archipelago the biggest islands, also is the English most main national territory. It by the north Scotland, south and the middle England and the north-west Welsh three areas is composed.

Climate(气候)

England is the oceanity temperate climate, the general winter warm summer is cool.

History(历史)

Discovered according to the archaeology that, on the British island has the humanity in 3500 ago to live. 5 centuries intermediate stages, large quantities of Date graceful person invade Great Britain by Northern Europe, becomes the nowadays England people the ancestor. But a then Kerr special person part ran away west and north the mountainous area, another part ran away toward Ireland, they are today Wales person, the Scotland person and the Irish person's ancestor. A.D. 6 centuries Christianity starts to spread to Great Britain. In 15 centuries the leaf, the English aristocrats for capture the throne to hit for 30 years “the rose” the civil war. Finally, the economical more developed south earth advocates peace the new aristocrat to win. “All Ze dynasty” from this establishment. In the First World War time, the yingde has become the belligerent country. As a result of the English people's counter- German mood, English king George five th issued an order in 1919, will have the German color “the Hannover dynasty” to change name as “Warm sand dynasty”. In 18th century leaf, because politics, the economy and the technical aspect gradually are mature, England has started a industrial revolution. Along with the steam engine invention, each kind of machine use, to 19th century in leaf's Victoria time, England has become in the world the most advanced industrialized country, leaps to the world first place in the production and the trade yeast, everywhere carries out the gunboat policy, captures the marine hegemony, invades the colony, massively plunders other country wealth. Great Britain dominates the world, spreads Europe, Asia, America, Africa, Australia in the overseas control region, is known as “the date not to fall the empire”. To 19th century last stages, because country's and so on America, Germany rises and all that all sorts of reasons, England gradually loses the superiority. Afterwards received the serious wound in Second World War, Great Britain national strength declines day after day. Originally is the native place the Irish island, its south 26 county were separated from the united kingdom in 1921, the overseas colony also in abundance announce the independence after World War II. Great Britain gradually evolves a organization loose British Commonwealth of Nations.

英国的全称是“大不列颠和北爱尔兰联合王国”的坐落在欧洲大陆的东北海岸的群岛英属群岛大部分组成.她分开北海,多佛海峡和英吉利海峡相望的欧洲大陆另一个是一个岛国.英语总面积约240,000平方公里,人口近59万美元,根据历史,地理和民族品格进入英格兰,苏格兰,威尔士,北爱尔兰四个部分划分,英国人占了总人口的80%.英语的居民大部分是在基督教新教相信,北爱尔兰地区部分居民信天主教.英语冬暖夏凉,是海洋性温带气候.

全国调查(国家概况)

英国是近代工业革命的起源,正式名称为“联合王国”,全称“大不列颠和北爱尔兰联合王国(大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国)”,全国发生面积共244,000平方公里,居民多信基督教新教,北爱尔兰地区部分居民信天主教,一些英语的也相信,在伊斯兰教,佛教,印度教,种族,犹太教等.

地理位置(地理位置)

方法全境由欧洲大陆的东北部海岸的群岛英属群岛大部分组成,隔北海,多佛海峡和英吉利海峡相望的欧洲大陆,另一个是一个岛国.海岸线总长度1.1万公里.东面的大不列颠岛是群岛中最大的岛屿,也是英国最主要的国土.它是由苏格兰北部,南部和英格兰中部和西北部的威尔士三个地区组成.

气候(气候)

英国是海洋性温带气候,冬季温暖的夏季一般是凉爽.

历史(历史)

据考古发现是,在英国岛屿有35前的人类生活. 5世纪中期,优美的日期大量侵入人的大北欧英国,成为现今英格兰人的祖先.但当时克尔特别的人跑了部分西部和北部山区,另一部分爱尔兰跑向了,他们是今天的威尔士人,苏格兰和爱尔兰人的人的祖先.公元6世纪基督教开始蔓延到英国.在15世纪叶,英国贵族为捕捉王位打了30年“玫瑰”内战.最后,经济较发达的南方大地主张和平的新贵族取胜. “所有泽王朝”从此确立.在第一次世界大战期间,英德已成为好战的国家.作为的英国人民的反德情绪的结果,英国国王乔治五日发出的命令在19,将有德国色彩的“汉诺威王朝”改变为“温暖的沙子王朝”的名字.在18世纪的一页,因为政治,经济和技术方面逐步成熟,英国已开始了工业革命.随着蒸汽机的发明,各种机械用一种,在叶的维多利亚时间19世纪,英国已成为世界上最先进的工业化国家,跃居世界生产和贸易的酵母首位,到处进行炮舰政策,抓住了海上霸权,侵占殖民地,大量掠夺其他国家财富.英国主宰世界,在海外传播控制地区的欧洲,亚洲,美洲,非洲,澳洲,为“日不落帝国”之称.到了19世纪的最后阶段,由于国家和等美国,德国上升和所有种种原因,英国逐渐失去优势.后来收到了在第二次世界大战后伤口严重的一天,英国国力下降的一天.原来是本土的爱尔兰岛,其南部的26个县进行分离,从英国在19,海外殖民地也纷纷宣布第二次世界大战后独立.英国一个组织松散的逐渐演变英联邦.

看过英国的英文缩写是什么的人还看了：

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3.谢谢的英文缩写是什么

4.加拿大的英文缩写是什么

5.美国的英文缩写是什么

篇5：英国餐桌礼仪 英文

Table Manners in England (UK)

The British generally pay a lot of attention to good table manners. Even young children are expected to eat properly with knife and fork.

We eat most of our food with cutlery. The foods we don't eat with a knife, fork or spoon include sandwiches, crisps, corn on the cob, and fruit.

Things you should do:

If you cannot eat a certain type of food or have some special needs, tell your host several days before the dinner party.

If you are a guest, it is polite to wait until your host starts eating or indicates you should do so. It shows consideration.

Always chew and swallow all the food in your mouth before taking more or taking a drink.

You may eat chicken and pizza with your fingers if you are at a barbecue, finger buffet or very informal setting. Otherwise always use a knife and fork.

Always say thank you when served something. It shows appreciation.

When eating rolls, break off a piece of bread before buttering. Eating it whole looks tacky.

When eating soup, tip the bowl away from you and scoop the soup up with your spoon.

When you have finished eating, and to let others know that you have,

place your knife and folk together, with the prongs (tines) on the fork facing upwards, on your plate.

In a restaurant, it is normal to pay for your food by putting your money on the plate the bill comes on.

Things you should not do:

Never lick or put your knife in your mouth.

It is impolite to start eating before everyone has been served unless your host says that you don't need to wait.

Never chew with your mouth open. No one wants to see food being chewed or hearing it being chomped on.

It is impolite to have your elbows on the table while you are eating.

Don't reach over someone's plate for something, ask for the item to be passed.

Never talk with food in your mouth.

It is impolite to put too much food in your mouth.

Never use your fingers to push food onto your spoon or fork.

It is impolite to slurp your food or eat noisily.

Never blow your nose on a napkin (serviette). Napkins are for dabbing your lips and only for that.

Never take food from your neighbours plate.

Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails.

Things that are ok to do:

It is ok to eat and drink something while walking down the street, unless you want to seem posh.

It is ok to pour your own drink when eating with other people, but it is more polite to offer pouring drinks to the people sitting on either side of you.

It is ok to put milk and sugar in your tea and coffee or to drink them both without either.

I am not used to eating with a knife and fork. What do I need to know?

We eat continental style, with fork in the left hand and the knife in the right (or the other way round if you are left handed). At the top of your plate will be a dessert spoon and dessert fork.

If you are eating at a formal dinner party, you will come across many knives and forks. Start with the utensils on the outside and work your way inward with each subsequent course

How to eat with a knife and fork in England

The fork is held in the left hand and the knife in the right.

If you have a knife in one hand, it is wrong to have a fork in the other with the prongs (tines) pointed up.

Hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your folk in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards.

篇6：英国餐桌礼仪 英文

1) As soon as the hostess picks up her napkin,pick yours up and lay it on your lap. Sometimes a roll of bread is wrapped in it; if so, take it out and put it on your side plate.

2) The Soup Course

Dinner usually begins with soup. The largest spoon at your place is the soup spoon. It will be beside your plate at the right-hand side.

3) The Fish Course

If there is a fish course, it will probably follow the soup. There may be a special fork for the fish, or it may be similar to the meat fork. Often it is smaller.

4) The Meat Course

The main Course is usually served by the host himself, especially if it is a fowl or a roast which need to be carved. He will often ask each guest what piece he prefers, and it is quite proper to state your preference as to lean or fat, dark or light.

5) Using Knife and Fork

If you have English and American friends you will notice a few differences in their customs of eating. For the main or meat curse, the English keep the fork in the left hand, point curved downward, and bring the food to the mouth either by sticking the points onto it or in the case of soft vegetables, by placeing it firmly on the fork in this position with the knife. Americans carve the meat in the same position, then lay down the knife and taking the fork in the right hand with the point turned up, push it under a small piece of food without the help of the knife and bring it to the mouth right-side-up.

6) Helping Yourself and Refusing

If a servant passes food around, he will pass the dish in at your left hand so that you can conveniently serve yourself with your right hand. Never serve yourself while the dish is on your right; it is then the turn of your neighbor on the right. It is polite to take some of everything that is passed to you. But if there is something you may not like, you may quietly say: “No ，thank you.”

7) Second Helpings

The hostess may or may not ask if you would like a second helping, according to the formality of the meal. If she does and you accept it, you should pass your plate to her or to the servant with the knife and fork still lying on it.

8) The Salad Course

A salad is eaten with a fork only held in the right hand with points turned up. There is usually a special one for the salad, a little smaller than the meat fork.

9) Bread and Butter

Bread is taken in the fingers and laid on the side plate or the edge of the large plate, it is never take with a fork. Butter is taken from the butter dish with the butter knife and placed on the side plate, not on one's bread.

10) Other Things on the Table

When there are things on the middle of the table, such as bread, butter, jelly, pickles, nits, candies, you should not take any until the hostess ahs suggested that they be passed.

篇7：英国餐桌礼仪 英文

The Role of Manners?

There is not much call for a complete working knowledge of table manners in America today. Many families only gather all at once around the dinner table at holiday feasts, and most restaurants are too casual to require, or even to allow for, more than basic good table manners. If, having dropped his napkin, a diner at a bistro were to attempt to practice proper etiquette by signaling a member of the staff to bring a fresh one, he would probably have to do without a napkin at all. Try as he might to make eye contact and indicate the nature of the problem with a subtle wiggle of the eyebrow and downward flicker of the glance, he is likely to succeed only in causing his date to think he is making a play for the server. Although strict good manners forbid placing a used eating utensil back on the table, the server removing a plate on which a fork has quite properly been positioned “pointing at 11 o'clock” might just plop that item back where it started, making more of a clatter than if the diner had simply done it herself.

From time to time -- perhaps at an important business dinner, a romantic date at an expensive restaurant, or a first dinner with the family of the person who may be “the One” -- it is necessary to display a more sophisticated knowledge of table etiquette. This is not difficult, once you have mastered the basics. Anyone armed with this core knowledge and the ability to adapt smoothly to the situation at hand will be able to handle even the most formal event. The goal is not, after all, to demonstrate utter mastery of the most arcane details of etiquette (which would be quite difficult considering the wide variations of customs in different cultures and from generation to generation), but rather to behave with graciousness and poise at the table.

Mastering the Basics

Much of the difficulty encountered in learning table manners derives from the struggle to master the ritual handling of the various tools involved. In order to display the right social veneer, it is necessary to sit at the table with elegant ease and wield the utensils with aplomb. The diner who leaves the napkin folded on his plate until it obstructs the placement of his appetizer plate reveals his lack of training. The dinner party guest who observes with dismay the array of flatware on either side of her plate, need only take the time to learn the simple secret to the plan. There are, of course, a few tips and pitfalls to be aware of, as well as the occasional surprising item you can eat with your hands. Here is a quick guide which will help steer you through even the most formal of occasions.

篇8：英国餐桌礼仪英文

table manners

The British people in the restaurant, they say “Thank you got the menu English!”, had dinner and said “Thank you!”, the food will say “Thank you!”, get the bill will say “Thank you!”, even if he paid when you will say “Thank you on you!”. For such a good, even if it is from a state of ceremonies the Chinese is probably very difficult to adapt to the.

The table etiquette British is very focused on children from an early age, the first day on the table from children, parents began to tangible or intangible “etiquette education”, want to help their children develop good eating habits and learn good meal etiquette. So in a British restaurant, you can't hear someone shouting “waiter” or “Miss”, and you can't hear anyone at that table talking about it. On the contrary, even though they may one day to be good what to eat today, also will be very patient to read the menu, and then sat there quietly waiting for the waiter to order; even if they sit in a forgotten corner, will try to look the same waiter or waving communication as much as possible to avoid any sound. When eating, everyone will eat quietly in their seats, talk quietly, even smile instead of laughing, and fear to disturb the people around them. Of course, such as soup can not make noise, shut up and chew food, and must speak after food swallowing, these traditional western etiquette is also an important part of the table manners in the UK.

A few parts of the table manners in Britain

1. reservations:

In the west, restaurants usually have to make a reservation in advance. There are several points to be noted when making an appointment. First, we should clarify the number and time. Secondly, we need to indicate whether smoking areas or seats with good vision. If it is a birthday or other special day, you can tell the purpose and budget of the banquet. It is the basic politeness to arrive at the scheduled time. It is necessary to make an apology in order to cancel the position in advance.

More expensive casual clothes, but also can not be casual dressed in the high-end western restaurant to eat, dress appropriately is the common sense of the European and American people. Go to the high-end restaurant, the men wear clean; women to wear dresses or suits and shoes, makeup is slightly heavier in the restaurant because the light is dark, if you specify to wear formal clothing, men have to tie into the restaurant, the men should first open the door, let the woman in. Should be invited to walk in front of mrs.. Sit down, please point to taste the wine should be decided and ms..

In general, the business hours of the western restaurant begin at 11:30 noon, afternoon, and 6:30 p.m. if the guests arrive early, they can have a drink in the bar first and then enter the main restaurant.

Sit in 2.

After sitting, you cannot rush to order. If you have any questions, you can ask the waiter directly. They are usually very happy to answer any questions you ask. If they are not very clear, they will ask the restaurant manager or chef.

It's too early to eat. It's too early to arrive at a western restaurant at 11 o'clock or 5:30 p.m., and it's a rude way to go on the table, talk about business and dress on the table, eat too much of the main course, slow down the next dish, or just start appetizers, not ordering the main course and dessert.

The appetizer of high grade Western food is very small, but very delicate, it is worth tasting slowly. After the meal, you can choose dessert or cheese, coffee, tea and so on. Different countries have different tips. But be sure to add more praise and thank you.

To eat Western food is very popular in terms of procedures: marble fireplace, sparkling crystal lamp, silver candlestick, colorful wine, and people's elegant and charming manners, which is a touching oil painting in itself. For your behavior in the first Western-style food more skilled, some effort to familiarize the dining etiquette, is very much worth it.

Don't fiddle with the tableware that is already on the table before eating. Gently fold the napkin on the knee. Napkin cloth can be used to wipe your mouth or wipe your hands. It should be diagonal stacked into a triangular shape or parallel to the growth side. The stains should be all rubbed inside, and the appearance will always look neat. When leaving the seat, even if it is for the time being away, it should be taken out of the tablecloth to be stacked into blocks or triangles on the side of the table or the feet of the table, preferably placed on their seats.

When seated, the body will sit straight, do not put your elbows on the table, don't cross your legs, and to use the table from the table for good.

3. use knife and fork spoon

The rule is: when you use knife and fork to eat, take the knife and fork from outside to the inside. In general, the left-handed person can take it in reverse, but put it back in place after dinner. The left hand holds the fork and the right hand holds the knife. When the knife is used, the blade must not go outward. When you put down the knife and fork in the meal, you should put it in “eight” and put it on the side of the plate. The blade faces itself, indicating that it will continue to eat. When each dish is finished, the knife and fork are put together in the plate to indicate that the waiter can remove the tableware. If it is a conversation, you can take a knife and fork, and it doesn't need to be put down. When no knife, fork in hand can be used, but need to make gestures, it should be put down knife and fork, don't shake hand knives and forks in the air, do not hand a knife or fork, and in the other hand napkin to wipe your mouth, nor in one hand and glass, on the other hand take food fork. Remember, at any time, do not put one end of the knife and fork on the plate and the other end on the table.

The cutlery and spoon for Western food have their own use, which can not be replaced or mixed.

The knife is used to cut food. Don't pick up food with a knife and send it to your mouth. Remember: with a knife in the right hand. If the meal, there are three kinds of different specifications of the knife at the same time, the general correct usage is that with a little teeth used to cut meat food; medium to big piece vegetables; and the kind of small, so, some of the top of head upturned knife is used to cut small and then use it to pick up some bread, jam, butter on bread.

Fork, take the hand with the left hand, fork the food into the mouth when the action should be light. Pick up the right amount of food and put it in the mouth. When the fork pick up the food into the mouth, the teeth only touch the food, do not bite the fork, and do not let the knife and fork make a sound on the teeth or in the disc.

Spoon, in formal occasions, there are many kinds of spoon, small for coffee and dessert, that is sweet dessert, flat for butter and cake, larger for soup or small food, and the most common is soup, commonly used in buffet.

4. elegant meals

Bread is usually broken into small pieces of the entrance, do not take the whole piece of bread to bite. When you use butter and jam, break the bread into small pieces and then apply it. Shut up when eating chewing, do not lick their lips or zazui sound, soup is also can't make a sound absorption. If the soup is overheated, you can wait for a little cold and eat again. Don't blow it with your mouth. When the soup with a spoon, scoop from the inside out, soup soon after drinking the soup, with the left hand to the lateral tilt slightly, with tablespoon to scoop net. After eating soup, the spoon will remain in the soup plate (bowl), the key point to their own. When eating fish, meat and other spiny or bone dishes, do not spit directly, use a napkin to cover your mouth and gently spit it on the fork and put it in the plate. To eat noodles, use a fork to roll up the noodles and send them to the entrance.

5. desserts and drinks

If you need to add milk or sugar when you drink coffee, stir it evenly with a small spoon, and then put the small spoon on the coffee pad. When you drink, you should take a cup in your right hand and pad the left hand. Don't scoop and drink with a spoonful of a spoonful. Eat fruit do not take the whole fruit to bite, should first cut into four petals with a fruit knife and use the knife to remove the skin, core, fork to eat.

the combination of drinking and food

Drinking should be collocation edible what food, often haunt people for hundreds of years, drinking appropriate food seems to have formed a law. However, with the emergence of new foods and new types of wine in modern society, these rules are outdated and increasingly unapplicable.

How to match food with alcohol is the first thing to understand. Life is different from personal preferences. Alcohol and food collocation must be matched with personal taste. You can order wine and food according to your taste, even if it is not allowed in the rules, or if you are firmly opposed to a friend at the same table, you should not be shy or embarrassed. There are many things that don't seem to fit together in life, or are they so harmonious. What wine should you use for dinner, however, what should you do when you can't make up your mind? Do you want to turn to those rules? Over the years, I have accumulated some experience to solve the problems you have encountered. These so-called “principles” do not tell you what to eat when you drink, but how the food and wine affect and interact with each other. The important thing to drink with food is depending on the taste. Food and wine can be divided into four flavors, which defines the range of wine and food collocation, namely, acid, sweet, bitter and salty.

Sour taste: you may have heard that wine can't match with salad, because the acid in the salad has greatly destroyed the alcohol. But if the salad and the acid wine are used together, the acid contained in the wine will be broken down by the lactic acid of the salad, which is of course a good match. So, you can choose acid wine and acid food together. The acid wine is shared with salty food and tastes good.

Sweetness: you can also choose desserts according to your personal taste when you have a meal. In general, dessert will reduce the taste of sweet wine. If you choose the California village of wine and a small piece of grilled swordfish with food, it seems very sweet. However, if the fish into salad, fruit will be subtractive wine and a lot of. So eat dessert, dessert too much sugar will be down cover, loss of flavor, should choose to slightly sweet and a little wine. This wine can keep its original taste.

Bitterness: the principle of “personal preference” is still used. Bitterness can be reduced with bitterness and bitterness. So if you want to dodge or remove the bitter taste can be bitter and bitter edible food collocation.

Salty: there are no salty wine, but many alcohol can reduce the salt flavour of salty food. Consumption of seafood such as fish in many countries and regions of the world, will be equipped with the lemon juice or wine, the main reason is that acid can reduce the salinity of the fish, eat, taste more delicious.

6. toast

Participate as a guest of foreign held banquets, should know each other toast habit, which is why people toast, when to drink a toast and so on, in order to make the necessary preparations. When you touch, host and guest of the first touch, people can also toast indicated, may not touch. Careful not to cross when the toast toast. In the host and guest oration, toast, should be suspended in the neighbourhood, stop talking, listen, don't take this opportunity to smoke. When the National Anthem should stand. Host and guest of finished and VIP seats after the touch, often to the other king to sprinkle the table, in this case should stand up to toast. When you touch, visual to greet each other.

At the banquet, the wine is friendly and active, but do not drink too much. Drinking too much easy to slip even rude, so I drink must be controlled within 1/3.

7. encountered accidents

During the banquet, due to carelessness, something unusual happens, such as too much force, causing the knife and fork to hit the dish, make a noise, or throw the tableware on the floor, or overturn the wine and so on. The tableware can touch a sound, gently to the neighbor (or Master) to say “I'm sorry”. The cutlery can be dropped by a guest. The wine spilled over his body, should apologize to help dry; such as other women, as long as the clean napkin or handkerchief can, by her own dry.

篇9：英国商务礼仪英文作文

英国商务礼仪英文作文

Britain is a rich and varied, with international and multi-cultural society, to welcome students from all over the world come here to learn and to value their contributions.

Britain is a tolerant, democratic society, where different political views and beliefs are respected. You will find many people wearing and eating habits and you do not have their own different major cities around the world have sales of snack food, meat from an Islamic shop, the Islamic meat from the shop. Asia to sell fruit and rice kind of Jewish food store to store, everything.

In different towns and cities, the year has a variety of activities to celebrate the world's major religious festivals and activities, for example, in the city of Leicester at the Stradivari outside the Indian sub-section is the most spectacular Festival of Lights.

Britain itself from England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, they have different characteristics and personality.

Britain from all over the world to accept immigrants and refugees has a long history, many people have been here for permanent settlement. London may be the largest gathering of minority British city, other cities also have a large number of minority residents.

All the world's major religions are British. Mosques, Sikh temples, synagogues, churches and India Fodou together with a variety of Christian churches (Anglican and Roman Catholic from the Protestant and Orthodox) co-exist.

This diversity means that you will come to Britain is easy to integrate into Britain's multi-ethnic society. You will also come from different religious and ethnic groups and people contacts, enhance understanding of different cultures.

篇10：英国奖学金申请书的英文

经典范文之一

Dear Sir:

I should like to apply for one of the scholarships that your department may be offering to students from other countries. Would you please send me the necessary application forms and any further details about the scholarships.

I am a postgraduate student in Beijing Science and Engineering University. I major in microelectronics engineering, and do some research work during my study years. I hope to have a further study and continue to do my research work if I succeed in obtaining the engineering scholarship.

Enclosed please find two letters of recommendation and my score report card. Thank you for your consideration. I look forward to your reply.

Respectfully yours,

Li Ming

经典范文之二

Dear Dr. Gomes:

I have read the announcement of the scholarship in chemistry that the University of Colorado is offering, and I would like to submit my application.

The enclosed application form for admission to the graduate school of your university will give my educational history. However, I would like to point out that I have just received an M.S.

Sincerely yours,

Li Ming

经典范文之三

Dear Sir:

I am writing to you in the hope of obtaining the scholarship in history to support my study and some research work.

I am a graduate student in the Department of History in the Northeast University for Nationalities. In addition to study and research work, I also write books. Recently I have finished a book on the history of the Oroqen nationality in China, which is to be published by the World Book Publishing House in the coming year. I would like to focus on that field for my advanced studies.

Enclosed please find three letters of recommendation and my resume. Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to your reply.

Respectfully yours,

Li Ming

篇11：英国留学英文申请书常用

dear professor,

i am greatly grateful that you can spare some time to read my letter. i am a chinese undergraduate from _, which is one of the top 10 universities in china, and i will graduate in 20_. after that, i want to continue my education by pursuing a master degree in france. i am now in the department of _.

my primary interest is in international commerce, and i notice that essec is on top of that field, so i decide to exert myself to get in. your research in “cross-cultural relationship marketing”, especially your publications on business of china as well as southeast asia, are of particular interest to me. and i would like to deal with business between europe and china in my career. that's why i seek entry to your theme.

during my university years, i am used to working in a team environment. for example, i was administrative vice minister in student union, and organized and schemed activities along with competitions in university. for my excellent job, i gained the scholarship for entertainment and physical education activities. after passing college english tests 4&6, i turned to learn french last year and i got a score of 463 in tcf. i am preparing for ielts currently, and if gmat is necessary for applying master degree in essec, i shall take the test after the ielts test.

with so much admiration and enthusiasm, i hope i would have the opportunity to work under your supervision. if admitted, i am able to continue working along the lines of your present research. thanks for your kindness and consideration.

yours sincerely , _-

篇12：英国留学英文申请书常用

Dear_ My teacher:

Hello!

I'm from Henan Province__ Middle school students, I'm very glad to present my application for studying abroad to you, and I hope to take this opportunity to stand out for the smooth entry_ The university has laid a solid foundation.

In this dream city of the capital, there are many colleges and universities, but only your school has deeply attracted my attention. Every year, our high school will be admitted to your school, they are known as “the son of heaven”. When the admission gold list was posted to the campus, looking at the smile on their faces, my heart was like a rough sea, and I couldn't bear it any more. I secretly made up my mind that one day I would build my dream on the campus of the National People's Congress with my own strength and become a part of her.

To be successful, we have to work hard and study hard.

In learning, I am very strict with myself, and fully carry forward the spirit of not afraid to bear hardships to face all the difficulties and setbacks in learning. I know that learning is a process of suffering. Only by persevering can we achieve the rebirth of Phoenix Nirvana and reach the other side of success. Therefore, in the classroom, I closely follow the teacher's ideas, listen carefully, take notes carefully, every knowledge point will not be missed. After class, I cherish the time, work hard to review, actively preview, and control my learning rhythm. I like to think about problems, like to explore the source of problems, and then draw inferences from one instance, break the whole into parts. Due to my diligence and hard work, I got excellent results. I was in the forefront of the school in every exam, and was affirmed by teachers and students. I was rated as excellent class cadre, excellent student and learning pacesetter for many times.

At the same time, I also take time to develop my interests. I like to play table tennis, badminton, basketball, immersed in the passion of physical exercise and heroic, in the tension and stimulation between the harvest of a strong physique. But I prefer traditional Chinese culture to physical exercise.

I like the breadth and depth of Chinese culture, the massiness and magic of Chinese culture. After class, I have read many classics of Chinese studies, such as Mencius, the Analects of Confucius, historical records, Zizhitongjian, Hanshu, and so on. I feel the infinite charm of Chinese Studies in words and stories. In my opinion, Sinology is not only the traditional culture, but also the core value concept and pursuit of the Chinese nation. It is a high summary of the way of thinking, behavior, life and production of the Chinese people for thousands of years. It is the milk of the Chinese mother, the blood, spirit and soul of the Chinese people, and the sky and earth of the Chinese people's faith.

Out of my love for Sinology, I have been determined to devote myself to the study, excavation and promotion of the precious culture of the motherland since I was a child. With what I have learned, I will contribute my humble efforts to the cultural development of the country and the cultural rejuvenation of the nation.

And the reason why I'm in so many places_ I love your university because of its profound culture. Your university is a comprehensive research-oriented university focusing on Humanities and social sciences. Since the establishment of the University, your school has never forgotten the school running purpose of “serving the people, studying and serving the country”. Taking “seeking truth from facts” as the school motto, it has gradually formed a complete education system, especially focusing on the role of Humanities and Social Sciences in understanding the world, inheriting civilization, innovating theories, consulting politics and educating people, and serving the society, It has provided a large number of high-quality talents for the country, among which Fan Wenlan, Feng Qiyong, Ai Qing, Wang Xiaobo and other alumni are famous and have made great contributions to the cultural construction of the country.

I admire the National College of your university. It is the first educational and scientific research institution in New China that takes Sinology as the purpose of educational research and is a graduate school. The college has a strong academic force. It has formulated a complete and systematic teaching plan of Sinology, established a curriculum system centered on classic study, and fully considered the organic integration of tradition and modern. In teaching and research, it not only inherits the characteristics of traditional scholarship, but also has a distinct modernity and broad international vision. All these make me yearn. Therefore, I think your college is my dream place and will change my life path.

Dear teacher, please consider and accept my application, give me a piece of sky, let me fly freely, give me a piece of ocean, let me swim freely, I believe that entering the National People's Congress is my most wise choice. If I am accepted successfully, I will cherish my time, work hard and assiduously, devote myself to academic research, follow the footsteps of masters, leave my name in the inheritance of Chinese culture, become the pillar of the country and the pride of the National People's Congress.

I believe I can.

Sincerely

Salute

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