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托福TPO6Part2阅读及答案解析

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托福TPO6Part2阅读及答案解析

篇1：托福TPO6Part2阅读及答案解析

托福TPO6阅读文本Part2

William Smith

In 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He received rudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England.

This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, “A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland,” a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today.

In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the “father of English geology,” it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz-a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions-there's no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago.

As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particular periods in Earth's history.

Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris.

Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.

Paragraph 1: In 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He receivedrudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England.

托福TPO6阅读题目Part2

1. The word “rudimentary” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○thorough

○strict

○basic

○occasional

2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements about William Smith is NOT true?

○Smith learned surveying by reading and by apprenticing for a local surveyor.

○Smith's family lived in a small English town and possessed little wealth.

○Smith learned about fossils from books he borrowed from his uncle.

○Smith eventually left his village to work on the excavation of an English canal.

Paragraph 2: This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, “A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland,” a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today.

3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about canal building?

○ Canals were built primarily in the south of England rather than in other regions.

○ Canal building decreased after the steam locomotive was invented.

○ Canal building made it difficult to study rock strata which often became damaged in the process.

○ Canal builders hired surveyors like Smith to examine exposed rock strata.

4. According to paragraph2, which of the following is true of the map published by William Smith?

○It indicates the locations of England's major canals.

○It became most valuable when the steam locomotive made rail travel possible.

○The data for the map were collected during Smith's work on canals.

○It is no longer regarded as a geological masterpiece.

5. The word “meticulously” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○carefully

○quickly

○frequently

○obviously

Paragraph 3: In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the “father of English geology,” it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz-a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions-there's no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago.

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○The discovery of regional differences in the sequences of rocks led geologists to believe that rock types could someday become reliable time markers.

○Careful analysis of strata revealed that rocks cannot establish geological time because the pattern of rock layers varies from place to place.

○Smith's catalogs of rock strata indicated that the sequences of rocks are different from place to place and from region to region.

○Because people did not catalog regional differences in sequences of rocks, it was believed that rocks could never be reliable time markers.

7. Why does the author use the phrase “Quartz is quartz”?

○To describe how the differences between Pleistocene and Cambrian quartz reveal information about dating rocks

○To point out that the chemical composition of quartz makes it more difficult to date than other rocks

○To provide an example of how regional differences in rock sequences can make a particular rock difficult to date

○To explain that rocks are difficult to use for dating because their chemical compositions always remain the same over time

Paragraph 4: As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particular periods in Earth's history.

8. According to paragraph 4, it was difficult for Smith to distinguish rock strata because

○the rocks from different strata closely resembled each other

○he was often unable to find fossils in the younger rock strata

○their similarity to each other made it difficult for him to distinguish one rock type from another

○the type of rock between two consistent strata was always the same

9. The word “endured” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○vanished

○developed

○varied

○survived

Paragraph 5: Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.

10. The word “virtually” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○possibly

○absolutely

○surprisingly

○nearly

11. Select the TWO answer choices that are true statements based upon the discussion of the principle of faunal succession in paragraph 5. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.

○It was a principle that applied to fauna but not to flora.

○It was discovered independently by two different geologists.

○It describes how fossils are distributed in rock strata.

○It explains why plants and animals undergo transformations through time.

12. In mentioning “trilobite”, the author is making which of the following points?

○Fossils cannot be found in more than one rock stratum.

○Faunal succession can help put rock layers in relative temporal sequence.

○Faunal succession cannot be applied to different strata composed of the same kind of rock.

○The presence of trilobite fossils makes it difficult to date a rock.

Paragraph 5: Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. █By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. █About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. █Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. █It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.

13.Look at the four squares [█]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage

The findings of these geologists inspired others to examine the rock and fossil records in different parts of the world.

Where would the sentence best fit?

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

William Smith's contributions to geology have increased our knowledge of the Earth's history.

●

Answer Choices

○Smith found success easily in his profession because he came from a family of geologists and surveyors.

○Smith's work on canals allowed him to collect fossils and study rock layers all over England.

○Smith found that fossils are much more reliable indicators of geological time than rock strata are.

○Smith was named “the father of English geology” for his maps rather than for his other contributions to the field.

○Smith and Cuvier discovered that fossil patterns are easier to observe in ancient rock strata than in younger rock strata.

○The discovery of the principle of faunal succession allowed geologists to establish the relative age of Earth's rock layers

托福TPO6阅读答案Part2

参考答案：

1. ○3

2. ○3

3. ○2

4. ○3

5. ○1

6. ○2

7. ○4.

8. ○1

9. ○4

10. ○4

11. ○2, 3

12. ○2

13. ○3

14. Smith's work on canals allowed

Smith found that fossils are

The discovery of the principle

托福TPO6阅读翻译Part2

参考翻译：威廉;史密斯

1769年，在英国牛津郡的一个小镇上，一个小男孩儿出生在村里一户穷铁匠家，他的名字很普通，叫做威廉o史密斯。史密斯只在村里的学校接受了最基本的教育，大部分的时间都是在他叔叔的农场里搜寻化石，这些化石在科茨沃尔德山的岩石里是很常见的。长大后，他开始用微薄的积蓄买书自学测量，18岁的时候，史密斯成为了当地教区测量员的助理。后来，他又自学了地质学，24岁的时候，他开始为挖掘英格兰南部Somerset Coal运河的那家公司工作。

那是在蒸汽火车发明之前，运河建筑正处于顶峰时期。致力于开掘运河来运输煤的公司需要测量员帮助他们探寻值得挖掘的煤矿的地址以及最佳的运河路线。这份工作为史密斯提供了机会，使他能够接触和学习那些因为运河开掘而露出地面的新鲜岩层。后来他仍从事类似的工作，行遍全国，不断地研究那些新出现的地层，同时收集他所能发现的化石。史密斯乘着邮件马车每年行进将近1万英里。18，他绘制了第一张现代地质学地图--《英格兰、威尔士及部分苏格兰地区地层地图》，这张地质地图绘制得非常精确，直到现在仍有参考价值。

1831年，史密斯最终被伦敦地质学会认可，并赋予他“英国地质学之父”的称号，这不仅仅是因为那张地图，而且是为了其他更重要的原因。从人们开始对露出地面的特殊岩层进行分类的时候起，大家就开始认为这些岩石可能会以某种方式被用于计算地质年代。但是，随着各地越来越多的岩层的积累和分类，岩层顺序也因地区的不同而不同，因此，全世界没有一种特定的岩层能被认作是划分地质年代的标志。即便排除区域差异的影响，岩石作为确定年代的标记还是存在一些难题。石英就是石英---四个氧离子包围一个硅离子的化合物--而200万年前更新世的石英和5亿年前寒世纪的石英并无差别。

史密斯在全英国的岩层中不断搜集化石，后来他发现化石所反映的史实和岩石反映的完全不同，尤其是那些新产生的地层里的岩石，这些岩石非常类似，不易于区分地层。而区分其中的化石对史密斯来说简直就是轻而易举。在同一地层中发现的岩石可能在这片地层中属于泥板岩，而在另一片地层中可能是砂岩，而在那些泥板岩或者砂岩中的化石往往都是一样的。有的化石经历了数百年万之久，它们存在于很多岩层中，但有的化石只存在于部分地层，还有一部分生物的化石从出现至灭绝都只出现在一个特定的岩层中。因此，化石才是真正划分地球历史特定年代的指针。

史密斯不仅可以通过岩石中包含的化石来识别地层，而且可以看出他们显露出来的模式：一些特定的化石往往出现在更为久远的沉积物当中，而其他的化石则可以在距今年代较近的地层中发现。通过追踪化石，史密斯将英国范围内所有的地层进行了彼此出现时间的排序。同时，乔治o居维叶在研究巴黎周围的岩石时也得出了同样的发现。很快人们就开始认识到，这种动物物种的延续性是符合逻辑的，不仅仅是在英国、法国，而实际上在全世界范围都是适用的。事实上，这一原则同样适用于证实植物的延续性，因为植物和动物一样，它们的化石也显示了时间的推移。人类有可能在侏罗纪时期的地层中发现寒世纪或者3亿年后的石灰岩，但绝不可能在侏罗纪时期地层中发现三叶虫化石(三叶虫是寒世纪非常普遍的水生节肢动物)，也不可能发现寒世纪时期的恐龙化石。

篇2：TPO6托福阅读Part3答案解析

托福TPO6阅读文本Part3

Infantile Amnesia

What do you remember about your life before you were three? Few people can remember anything that happened to them in their early years. Adults' memories of the next few years also tend to be scanty. Most people remember only a few events-usually ones that were meaningful and distinctive, such as being hospitalized or a sibling's birth.

How might this inability to recall early experiences be explained? The sheer passage of time does not account for it; adults have excellent recognition of pictures of people who attended high school with them 35 years earlier. Another seemingly plausible explanation-that infants do not form enduring memories at this point in development-also is incorrect. Children two and a half to three years old remember experiences that occurred in their first year, and eleven month olds remember some events a year later. Nor does the hypothesis that infantile amnesia reflects repression-or holding back-of sexually charged episodes explain the phenomenon. While such repression may occur, people cannot remember ordinary events from the infant and toddler periods either.

Three other explanations seem more promising. One involves physiological changes relevant to memory. Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain continues throughout early childhood, and this part of the brain may be critical for remembering particular episodes in ways that can be retrieved later. Demonstrations of infants' and toddlers' long-term memory have involved their repeating motor activities that they had seen or done earlier, such as reaching in the dark for objects, putting a bottle in a doll's mouth, or pulling apart two pieces of a toy. The brain's level of physiological maturation may support these types of memories, but not ones requiring explicit verbal descriptions.

A second explanation involves the influence of the social world on children's language use. Hearing and telling stories about events may help children store information in ways that will endure into later childhood and adulthood. Through hearing stories with a clear beginning, middle, and ending children may learn to extract the gist of events in ways that they will be able to describe many years later. Consistent with this view, parents and children increasingly engage in discussions of past events when children are about three years old. However, hearing such stories is not sufficient for younger children to form enduring memories. Telling such stories to two year olds does not seem to produce long-lasting verbalizable memories.

A third likely explanation for infantile amnesia involves incompatibilities between the ways in which infants encode information and the ways in which older children and adults retrieve it. Whether people can remember an event depends critically on the fit between the way in which they earlier encoded the information and the way in which they later attempt to retrieve it. The better able the person is to reconstruct the perspective from which the material was encoded, the more likely that recall will be successful.

This view is supported by a variety of factors that can create mismatches between very young children's encoding and older children's and adults' retrieval efforts. The world looks very different to a person whose head is only two or three feet above the ground than to one whose head is five or six feet above it. Older children and adults often try to retrieve the names of things they saw, but infants would not have encoded the information verbally. General knowledge of categories of events such as a birthday party or a visit to the doctor's office helps older individuals encode their experiences, but again, infants and toddlers are unlikely to encode many experiences within such knowledge structures.

These three explanations of infantile amnesia are not mutually exclusive; indeed, they support each other. Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers. Hearing the stories may lead preschoolers to encode aspects of events that allow them to form memories they can access as adults. Conversely, improved encoding of what they hear may help them better understand and remember stories and thus make the stories more useful for remembering future events. Thus, all three explanations-physiological maturation, hearing and producing stories about past events, and improved encoding of key aspects of events-seem likely to be involved in overcoming infantile amnesia.

Paragraph 2: How might this inability to recall early experiences be explained? The sheer passage of time does not account for it; adults have excellent recognition of pictures of people who attended high school with them 35 years earlier. Another seemingly plausible explanation-that infants do not form enduring memories at this point in development-also is incorrect. Children two and a half to three years old remember experiences that occurred in their first year, and eleven month olds remember some events a year later. Nor does the hypothesis that infantile amnesia reflects repression-or holding back-of sexually charged episodes explain thephenomenon. While such repression may occur, people cannot remember ordinary events from the infant and toddler periods either.

托福TPO6阅读题目Part3

1. What purpose does paragraph 2 serve in the larger discussion of children's inability to recall early experiences?

○To argue that theories that are not substantiated by evidence should generally be considered unreliable

○To argue that the hypotheses mentioned in paragraph 2 have been more thoroughly researched than have the theories mentioned later in the passage

○To explain why some theories about infantile amnesia are wrong before presenting ones more likely to be true

○To explain why infantile amnesia is of great interest to researchers

2. The word “plausible” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○flexible

○believable

○debatable

○predictable

3. The word “phenomenon” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○exception

○repetition

○occurrence

○idea

4. All of the following theories about the inability to recall early experiences are rejected in paragraph 2 EXCEPT:

○The ability to recall an event decreases as the time after the event increases.

○Young children are not capable of forming memories that last for more than a short time.

○People may hold back sexually meaningful memories.

○Most events in childhood are too ordinary to be worth remembering.

Paragraph 3: Three other explanations seem more promising. One involves physiological changes relevant to memory. Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain continues throughout early childhood, and this part of the brain may be critical for remembering particular episodes in ways that can be retrieved later. Demonstrations of infants' and toddlers' long-term memory have involved their repeating motor activities that they had seen or done earlier, such as reaching in the dark for objects, putting a bottle in a doll's mouth, or pulling apart two pieces of a toy. The brain's level of physiological maturation may support these types of memories, but not ones requiring explicit verbal descriptions.

5. What does paragraph 3 suggest about long-term memory in children?

○Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain is important for the long-term memory of motor activities but not verbal descriptions.

○Young children may form long-term memories of actions they see earlier than of things they hear or are told.

○Young children have better long-term recall of short verbal exchanges than of long ones.

○Children's long-term recall of motor activities increases when such activities are accompanied by explicit verbal descriptions.

Paragraph 4: A second explanation involves the influence of the social world on children's language use. Hearing and telling stories about events may help children store information in ways that will endure into later childhood and adulthood. Through hearing stories with a clear beginning, middle, and ending children may learn to extract the gist of events in ways that they will be able to describe many years later. Consistent with this view, parents and children increasingly engage in discussions of past events when children are about three years old. However, hearing such stories is not sufficient for younger children to form enduring memories. Telling such stories to two year olds does not seem to produce long-lasting verbalizable memories.

6.According to paragraph 4, what role may storytelling play in forming childhood memories?

○It may encourage the physiological maturing of the brain.

○It may help preschool children tell the difference between ordinary and unusual memories.

○It may help preschool children retrieve memories quickly.

○It may provide an ordered structure that facilitates memory retrieval.

Paragraph 5: A third likely explanation for infantile amnesia involves incompatibilities between the ways in which infants encode information and the ways in which older children and adults retrieve it. Whether people can remember an event depends critically on the fit between the way in which they earlier encoded the information and the way in which they later attempt to retrieve it. The better able the person is to reconstruct the perspective from which the material was encoded, the more likely that recall will be successful.

7. The word “critically” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ fundamentally

○ partially

○ consistently

○ subsequently

8. The word “perspective” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ system

○ theory

○ source

○ viewpoint

Paragraph 6: This view is supported by a variety of factors that can create mismatches between very young children's encoding and older children's and adults' retrieval efforts. The world looks very different to a person whose head is only two or three feet above the ground than to one whose head is five or six feet above it. Older children and adults often try to retrieve the names of things they saw, but infants would not have encoded the information verbally. General knowledge of categories of events such as a birthday party or a visit to the doctor's office helps older individuals encode their experiences, but again, infants and toddlers are unlikely to encode many experiences within such knowledge structures.

9. The phrase “This view” in the passage refers to the belief that

○ the ability to retrieve a memory partly depends on the similarity between the encoding and retrieving process

○ the process of encoding information is less complex for adults than it is for young adults and infants

○ infants and older children are equally dependent on discussion of past events for the retrieval of information

○ infants encode information in the same way older children and adults do

10. According to paragraphs 5 and 6, one disadvantage very young children face in processing information is that they cannot

○ process a lot of information at one time

○ organize experiences according to type

○ block out interruptions

○ interpret the tone of adult language

Paragraph 7: These three explanations of infantile amnesia are not mutually exclusive; indeed, they support each other. Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers. Hearing the stories may lead preschoolers to encode aspects of events that allow them to form memories they can access as adults. Conversely, improved encoding of what they hear may help them better understand and remember stories and thus make the stories more useful for remembering future events. Thus, all three explanations-physiological maturation, hearing and producing stories about past events, and improved encoding of key aspects of events-seem likely to be involved in overcoming infantile amnesia.

11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○ Incomplete physiological development may partly explain why hearing stories does not improve long-term memory in infants and toddlers.

○ One reason why preschoolers fail to comprehend the stories they hear is that they are physiologically immature.

○ Given the chance to hear stories, infants and toddlers may form enduring memories despite physiological immaturity.

○ Physiologically mature children seem to have no difficulty remembering stories they heard as preschoolers.

12. How does paragraph 7 relate to the earlier discussion of infantile amnesia?

○It introduces a new theory about the causes of infantile amnesia.

○It argues that particular theories discussed earlier in the passage require further research.

○It explains how particular theories discussed earlier in the passage may work in combination.

○It evaluates which of the theories discussed earlier is most likely to be true.

Paragraph 1: What do you remember about your life before you were three? █Few people can remember anything that happened to them in their early years. █Adults' memories of the next few years also tend to be scanty. █Most people remember only a few events-usually ones that were meaningful and distinctive, such as being hospitalized or a sibling's birth. █

13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage

Other important occasions are school graduations and weddings.

Where would the sentence best fit?

There are several possible explanations why people cannot easily remember their early childhoods.

●

Answer Choices

○Preschoolers typically do not recall events from their first year.

○Frontal lobe function of the brain may need to develop before memory retrieval can occur.

○Children recall physical activities more easily if they are verbalized.

○The opportunity to hear chronologically narrated stories may help three-year-old children produce long-lasting memories.

○The content of a memory determines the way in which it is encoded.

○The contrasting ways in which young children and adults process information may determine their relative success in remembering

托福TPO6阅读答案Part3

参考答案：

1. ○3

2. ○2

3. ○3

4. ○4

5. ○2

6. ○4

7. ○1

8. ○4

9. ○1

10. ○2

11. ○1

12. ○3

13. ○4

14. Frontal lobe function

The opportunity to hear

The contrasting ways in

托福TPO6阅读翻译Part3

参考翻译：婴幼儿期记忆缺失

三岁前生活中发生事情你还记得多少?很少有人能记得婴幼儿时期曾经发生在他们身上的事情。成年人对三岁之后那几年的记忆也很稀疏。大部分人只记得那些很少的特殊的事情，比如住院或者弟弟妹妹的出生。

人们无法回忆起幼年事情的现象该如何解释呢?恐怕时间的流逝无法阐述清楚，成年人对35年前的高中同学照片仍可进行清楚地辨认。一种看似合理的解释认为，婴儿时期，孩子正在发展对发生的事情尚未形成永久性记忆，这种说法并不准确。两岁半到三岁的孩子能够记得他们一岁时候的事情，11个月大的孩子一年以后仍会记得一些事情。那些假设婴幼儿健忘症反映了孩子们对充满性欲的插曲的压制和隐藏，同样也解释不通。这种压制发生的时候，人们连孩提时代最普通的事情都是无法回忆起来的。

除此之外的三种解释似乎更具说服力。一种观点认涉及记忆相关的生理变化。孩子们早期的童年时代中，脑前叶不断地成熟，它对记忆发生的特殊事件以及之后对这些事情的回想起着至关重要的作用。婴幼儿长期记忆的形成，还会涉及到他们之前早期看到的或者自身经历的活动的重复，比如：到黑暗的环境里取东西，把瓶子塞到了洋娃娃的嘴里，或者将玩具撕成两半等。除了那些需要清晰语言描述的事件之外，大脑生理成熟的程度足以帮助他们记得这些特殊事件。

第二种观点与社会环境对孩子运用语言的影响有关。听故事和讲故事将有助于储存信息，直到他们的童年和成年。听故事的时候有个清晰的开头、情节和结尾会帮助孩子们提取事件的要点，并且使他们在过了很多年以后仍然可以描述这些事情。越来越多的家长们会在孩子三岁左右的时候和他们讨论过去发生的事情，这也与该理论一致。然而，仅仅听这些故事还是不足以帮更年幼的孩子形成永久的记忆。给两岁的孩子讲故事，并不能使他们形成语言化的记忆。

第三种可能的解释认为婴幼儿健忘症与婴儿储存信息的方式和成年后进行回忆的方式不相容有关。人们是否能够回忆起一件事情的关键在于这两种方式的匹配程度。两种方式越匹配，越有助于人们成功回忆之前发生的事情。

事实上，很多因素会导致婴幼儿储存信息的方式和成年人进行回忆的方式不匹配。对于一个头离地面两三尺的孩子来说，这个世界与那些稍大点的孩子眼中的世界不尽相同。长大后的孩子和成人经常试图回忆那些他们曾经见过的事物的名字，但在他们的幼儿时期时尚未对此进行语言化的信息储存。人们对类似生日聚会或者拜访医生诊所类似事件的分类常识有助于人们记忆他们的经历，但是，婴幼儿时期的孩子们似乎缺乏这些知识结构来帮助他们储存信息。

以上三种关于幼儿期遗忘的解释实际上并非互斥，他们是相互支持的。学龄前孩子听到那些可以促进他们回忆的故事时，生理上的不成熟是导致他们无法形成长久记忆的原因之一。听那些故事将有助于学龄前孩子在脑中储存已经发生的事情，以便形成他们可以像成年人那样自由提取的记忆。相反，将他们听到的故事进行更进一步的编码将有助于他们更好地理解和记忆，因此，那些故事将对他们记住将来发生的事情更有帮助。综上所述，生理上的成熟、听故事和讲故事以及改进对事件关键信息的编码都有助于克服婴幼儿遗忘症。

篇3：托福阅读真题及答案解析

托福阅读真题练习：声音的文本+题目+答案

托福阅读文本：

A number of factors related to the voice reveal the personality of the speaker. The first is the broad area of communication, which includes imparting information by use of language, communicating with a group or an individual, and specialized communication through performance. A person conveys thoughts and ideas through choice of words, by a tone of voice that is pleasant or unpleasant, gentle or harsh, by the rhythm that is inherent within the language itself, and by speech rhythms that are flowing and regular or uneven and hesitant, and finally, by the pitch and melody of the utterance. When speaking before a group, a person's tone may indicate unsureness or fright, confidence or calm. At interpersonal levels, the tone may reflect ideas and feelings over and above the words chosen, or may belie them. Here the conversant's tone can consciously or unconsciously reflect intuitive sympathy or antipathy, lack of concern or interest, fatigue, anxiety, enthusiasm or excitement, all of which are usually discernible by the acute listener. Public performance is a manner of communication that is highly specialized with its own techniques for obtaining effects by voice and /or gesture. The motivation derived from the text, and in the case of singing, the music, in combination with the performer's skills, personality, and ability to create empathy will determine the success of artistic, political, or pedagogic communication.

Second, the voice gives psychological clues to a person's self-image, perception of others, and emotional health. Self-image can be indicated by a tone of voice that is confident, pretentious, shy, aggressive, outgoing, or exuberant, to name only a few personality traits. Also the sound may give a clue to the facade or mask of that person, for example, a shy person hiding behind an overconfident front. How a speaker perceives the listener's receptiveness, interest, or sympathy in any given conversation can drastically alter the tone of presentation, by encouraging or discouraging the speaker. Emotional health is evidenced in the voice by free and melodic sounds of the happy, by constricted and harsh sound of the angry, and by dull and lethargic qualities of the depressed.

托福阅读题目：

1. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The function of the voice in performance

(B) The connection between voice and personality

(D) The production of speech

2. What does the author mean by stating that, “At interpersonal levels, tone may reflect ideas and

feelings over and above the words chosen” (lines 9-10)?

(A) Feelings are expressed with different words than ideas are.

(B) The tone of voice can carry information beyond the meaning of words.

(C)A high tone of voice reflects an emotional communication.

(D) Feelings are more difficult to express than ideas.

3. The word “Here” in line 10 refers to

(A) interpersonal interactions

(B) the tone

(D) words chosen

4. The word “derived” in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) discussed

(B) prepared

(D) obtained

5. Why does the author mention “artistic, political, or pedagogic communication” in line 17?

(A)As examples of public performance

(B)As examples of basic styles of communication

(D) To introduce the idea of self-image

6.According to the passage , an exuberant tone of voice, may be an indication of a person's

(A) general physical health

(B) personality

(D) vocal quality

7.According to the passage , an overconfident front may hide

(A) hostility

(B) shyness

(D) strength

8. The word “drastically” in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) frequently

(B) exactly

(D) easily

9. The word “evidenced” in line 25 is closest in meaning to

(A) questioned

(B) repeated

(D) exaggerated

10.According to the passage , what does a constricted and harsh voice indicate?

(A) lethargy

(B) depression

(D) anger

托福阅读答案：

BBADABBCCD

托福阅读真题练习：水彩画的文本+题目+答案

托福阅读文本：

The year 1850 may be considered the beginning of a new epoch in America art, with respect to the development of watercolor painting. In December of that year, a group of thirty artists gathered in the studio of John Falconer in New York City and drafted both a constitution and bylaws, establishing The Society for the Promotion of Painting in Water Color. In addition to securing an exhibition space in the Library Society building in lower Manhattan, the society founded a small school for the instruction of watercolor painting. Periodic exhibitions of the members' paintings also included works by noted English artists of the day, borrowed from embryonic private collections in the city. The society's activities also included organized sketching excursions along the Hudson River. Its major public exposure came in 1853, when the society presented works by its members in the “Industry of All Nations” section of the Crystal Palace Exposition in New York.

The society did not prosper, however, and by the time of its annual meeting in 1854 membership had fallen to twenty-one. The group gave up its quarters in the Library Society building and returned to Falconer's studio, where it broke up amid dissension. No further attempt to formally organize the growing numbers of watercolor painters in New York City was made for more than a decade. During that decade, though, Henry Warren's Painting in Water Color was published in New York City in 1856 — the book was a considerable improvement over the only other manual of instruction existing at the time, Elements of Graphic Art, by Archibald Roberson,published in 1802 and by the 1850's long out of print.

In 1866 the NationalAcademy of Design was host to an exhibition of watercolor painting in its elaborate neo-Venetian Gothic building on Twenty-Third Street in New York City. The exhibit was sponsored by an independent group called The Artists Fund Society. Within a few months of this event, forty-two prominent artists living in and near New York City founded The American Society of Painters in Water Colors.

托福阅读题目：

1. This passage is mainly about

(A) the most influential watercolor painters in the mid-1800's

(B) efforts to organize watercolor painters in New York City during the mid-1800's

(D) styles of watercolor painting in New York City during the mid-1800's

2. The year 1850 was significant in the history of watercolor painting mainly because

(A) a group of artists established a watercolor painting society

(B) watercolor painting was first introduced to New York City

(D) The first book on watercolor painting was published

3. The word “securing” in line 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) locking

(B) creating

(D) acquiring

4. All of the following can be inferred about the Society for the promotion of Painting in

Watercolor EXCEPT:

(A) The society exhibited paintings in lower Manhattan.

(B) Instruction in watercolor painting was offered by members of the society

(D) Scenes of the Hudson River appeared often in the work of society members.

5. The exhibition at the Crystal Palace of the works of the Society for the Promotion of Painting in

Watercolor was significant for which of the following reasons?

(A) It resulted in a dramatic increase in the popularity of painting with watercolor.

(B) It was the first time an exhibition was funded by a private source.

(D) It resulted in a large increase in the membership of the society.

6. The word “it” in line 15 refers to

(A) time

(B) group

(D) studio

7. Which of the following is true of watercolor painters in New York City in the late 1850's?

(A) They increased in number despite a lack of formal organization.

(B) They were unable to exhibit their paintings because of the lack of exhibition space.

Colors.

(D) They formed a new society because they were not allowed to join groups run by other kinds of

artists.

8. Henry Warren's Painting in Water Color was important to artists because it

(A) received an important reward

(B) was the only textbook published that taught painting

(D) attracted the interest of art collectors

9. The word “considerable” in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) sensitive

(B) great

(D) planned

10. The year 1866 was significant for watercolor painting for which of the following reasons?

(A) Elements of GraphicArt was republished.

(B) Private collections of watercolors were first publicly exhibited.

(D) The NationalAcademy of Design held an exhibition of watercolor paintings.

11. The word “prominent” in line 25 is closest in meaning to

(A) wealthy

(B) local

(D) organized

托福阅读答案：

BADCC BACBD C

托福阅读真题练习：霍霍坎的文本+题目+答案

托福阅读文本：

The observation of the skies has played a special part in the lives and cultures of peoples since the earliest of times. Evidence obtained from a site known as the Hole in the Rock, in Papago Park in Phoenix, Arizona, indicates that it might have been used as an observatory by a prehistoric people known as the Hohokam.

The physical attributes of the site allow its use as a natural calendar/clock. The “hole” at Hole in the Rock is formed by two large overhanging rocks coming together at a point, creating a shelter with an opening large enough for several persons to pass through. The northeast-facing overhang has a smaller opening in its roof. It is this smaller hole that produces the attributes that may have been used as a calendar/clock.

Because of its location in the shelter's roof, a beam of sunlight can pass through this second hole and cast a spot onto the shelter's wall and floor. This spot of light travels from west to east as the sun moves across the sky. It also moves from north to south and back again as the Earth travels around the Sun, the west-to-east movement could have been used to establish a daily clock, much like a sundial, while the north-to-south movement could have been used to establish a seasonal calendar.

The spot first appears and starts down the surface of the wall of the shelter at different times of the morning depending on the time of the year. The spot grows in size from its first appearance until its maximum size is achieved roughly at midday. It then continues its downward movement until it reaches a point where it jumps to the floor of the shelter. As the Sun continues to move to the west, the spot continues to move across the shelter floor and down the butte, or hill, toward a group of small boulders. If a person is seated on a certain one of these rocks as the spot reaches it, the Sun can be viewed through the calendar hole. This occurs at different times in the afternoon depending on the time of year.

托福阅读题目：

1. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) observations of the stars by ancient people

(B) rock formations of Arizona

(D) the movement of the earth around the Sun

2. The word “obtained” in line 2 is closest in meaning to

(A) acquired

(B) transported

(D) removed

3. The word “attributes” in line 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) changes

(B) characteristics

(D) dimensions

4. The word “its” in line 10 refers to

(A) roof

(B) beam

(D) spot

5. The word “establish” in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) create

(B) locate

(D) choose

6. Which of the following is NOT true of the spot of light?

(A) It is caused by sunlight passing through a hole.

(B) It travels across the roof of the shelter.

(D) It movement could have been used to estimate the time of day.

7. From which of the following can be the time of year be determined?

(A) The movement of the spot of light from west to east

(B) The speed with which the spot of light moves

(D) The size of the sport of light at midday

8. The word “roughly” in line 18 is closest in meaning to

(A) finally

(B) harshly

(D) approximately

9. The passage mentions that the Hole in the Rock was used as all of the following EXCEPT

(A) a calendar

(B) a home

(D) an observatory

10. Which of the following can be inferred from the fourth paragraph?

(A) The boulders are located below the rock shelter.

(B) The person seated on the rock cannot see the shelter.

(C)After it passes the boulders, the spot of light disappears.

(D) The spot of light is largest when it first appears.

托福阅读答案：

CABCA BCDBA

篇4：托福阅读TPO30原文+答案解析+译文

第一题，B，细节题。根据difficult to define定位到：One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance---dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting. 定义玩耍的一个问题就是玩耍包含很多发生在其他环境中的相似的行为——统治、捕食、竞争和真实的搏斗。

句子中的same behavior应该理解为相似的行为，因为后面明显是非play的时候，所以不可能是完全相同的play behavior。那么这句话表明，难于定义其实就是其他行为也会和玩耍的行为一样。所以对应的答案就是B。

第二题，A，细节题。根据challenge to researchers定位到：Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. still a matter debated表明这个话题仍旧需要研究，也就是challenge。动物玩耍的准确原因仍旧是在学术文章中被争论的，并且每一个物种玩耍的原因可能都不同。但是没有选项与这句话对应，所以看下一句：Determining the functions of play is difficult because the functions may be long-term, with beneficial effects not showing up until the animal’s adulthood. 决定玩耍的功能很困难，因为这些功能可能是长期的，伴随着的有益效果可能直到动物成年才会展现出来。根据这句话就指出，因为动作发生后很久才能看到增益，所以研究起来比较难，也就对应着A选项。

第三题，D，词汇题。considerable的意思是“相当的，显著的”，所以和D选项相同。

第四题，B，选非题。根据cost定位到段落第一句话：Play is not without considerable costs to the individual animal. 玩耍对于个体来说并不是没有显著的代价。这句话明显是一个段首的主旨句，所以推断本段可能都在论述cost，那么这个时候根据选项来回文章定位会更快。

A选项，根据predator定位到：Another potential cost of this activity is greater exposure to predators since play is attention-getting behavior. 这个活动的另一个潜在代价就是更可能被暴露在天敌之下，因为玩耍是很吸引注意力的一种行为。根据这句话A选项与原文相同，不选;B选项，根据fat stores定位到：Therefore, it results in the loss of fuel or energy that might better be used for growth or for building up fat stores in a young animal. 所以，它导致能量的丢失，这些能量应该更好地被用于生长或积累脂肪储存。这句话明显表明，能量丢失，也就是脂肪积累会减少，所以B选项直接相反，也就作为这道题的答案;C选项，定位句与B选项相同，可以得出能量丢失，所以C与原文相同，不选;D选项，根据injury、slipping、falling定位到：Great activities also increase the risk of injury in slipping or falling. 活动多同样会提高滑倒或摔倒所带来的危险;与D选项完全相同，所以D不选。

第五题，B，修辞目的题。先找到这句话：At the end of the experiments, the results showed that the actual weight of the brains of the impoverished rats was less than that of those raised in the enriched environment (though they were fed the same diets). 在这个实验的最后，结果展示出处于匮乏的环境的老鼠的大脑真实重量要比那些在丰富多彩的环境中的老鼠的大脑要小(虽然两者被喂养了相同的食物)。这句话表明，文章中提到了一个实验，这个实验最后的结论在这句话中表述了出来。句子的最后括号中的内容，也就是题目问的句子，一般是起到补充说明的作用。这个实验得出的结论就是这些老鼠大脑重量不同是因为它们所处的环境不同，而不会是因为食物量的不同，因为它们都被给了同样量的食物。那么给出括号内的内容就是为了说明这些老鼠大脑重量的不同不会是因为食物量的不同，也就是消除了由食物量不同而导致大脑重量不同的可能性。所以，答案就是B。

第六题，A，细节题。本题最快捷的做法就是根据上一题所在的句子得出结论：At the end of the experiments, the results showed that the actual weight of the brains of the impoverished rats was less than that of those raised in the enriched environment (though they were fed the same diets). 在这个实验的最后，结果展示出处于匮乏的环境的老鼠的大脑真实重量要比那些在丰富多彩的环境中的老鼠的大脑要小(虽然两者被喂养了相同的食物)。根据这句话直接可以得出，环境更丰富，大脑更沉。也就对应A选项。

第七题，C，细节题。根据prey species和predator species定位到：Prey species, like young deer or goats, for example, typically play by performing sudden flight movements and turns, whereas predator species, such as cats, practice stalking, pouncing, and biting. 被捕食者，比如小鹿或山羊，很典型的通过突然的飞跃和转弯来玩耍，然而捕食者，比如说猫科动物，会练习潜行、扑和咬。这句话是很具体的例子，并没有明确的指出两者的不同，所以往前看：Play also stimulates the development of the muscle tissues themselves and may provide the opportunity to practice those movements needed for survival. 玩耍同样促进了肌肉组织自身的发育，并且可能提供了机会去练习那些生存所必须的运动方式。两句话连起来，捕食者与被捕食者的不同，其实就是生存方式和技能是不同的，导致玩耍的方式不同。被捕食者需要练习的都是如何逃脱，而捕食者所进行的都是如何能够捕获食物。所以，答案就是C。

第八题，A，词汇题。comparative 相对的，相当的，所以答案是A。

第九题，C，句子简化题。句子主干就是：Learning appropriate social behaviors is especially important in species that live in groups，后面的内容都是举例的次要成分。答案必须包含这部分信息。只有C选项意思与该主干信息一致，主干说“学_x很重要”，C选项说“需要去学_x”，主干说“在群居动物中很重要”，C选项说“群居动物需要去”，所以两句话是完全的同意替换。

第十题，C，推断题。根据adult定位：Play allows a young animal to explore its environment and practice skills in comparative safety since the surrounding adults generally do not expect the young to deal with threats or predators. 玩耍使得小动物去探索它的环境，并且在相对安全下练习技能，因为周围的成年动物通常不希望幼崽面对危险或天敌。根据这句话，成年动物在玩耍中扮演的角色就是提供保护，也就对应的是C选项。

第十一题，B，词汇题。potentially 潜在地，可能地，所以答案是B。

第十二题，D，细节题。根据题目，本段第一句话就开始论述有时候会产生不理解玩耍行为：There is a danger, of course, that play may be misinterpreted or not recognized as play by others, potentially leading to aggression. 当然有一种危险就是玩耍可能被误解或者没有被其他动物识别出来，可能就会导致攻击行为。为了找到确保理解的方法，我们往下寻找：Thus, many species have evolved clear signals to delineate playfulness. 所以，很多动物进化出了明确表述玩耍的信号。所以对应的答案就是D。

第十三题，句子插入题。根据句子中提到的those这个代词，所以前面也要提到某些messages。

所以第三个位置前面提到的signals就是messages的同义改写。但是第三个位置后面具体提到dogs的例子，而插入的句子也在说狗，如果放在第三个位置，先提到插入的句子，之后再for example，前后会比较突兀，所以这个插入句子必须再往后放，才能构成连接关系。

最后一句话：Dogs, for example, will wag their tails, get down on their front legs, and stick their behinds in the air to indicate “what follows is just for play.” 比如说狗，会摇尾巴，前腿跪下，并且撅起屁股来表明“接下来发生的事情仅仅为了玩耍而已”。句子放在第四个位置，those messages指代的就是狗的这些动作信号。插入的句子放在这里就补全了这个例子的信息。

第十四题，AEF，小结题。A选项，第一段中提到：In any case, in animals it consists of leaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either alone, with objects, or with other animals. 在很多情况中，在动物中的玩耍包括跳跃、奔跑、攀爬、扔东西、搏斗、还有其他的动作，可能是动物自己玩耍、与某件物品玩耍、或者与其他动物玩耍。One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstances – dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting. 定义玩耍的一个问题就是玩耍包含很多发生在其他环境中的相似的行为——统治、捕食、竞争和真实的搏斗。这两个句子的信息与A选项的前半部分对应。第二段提到：Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. 动物玩耍的准确原因仍旧在学术领域被争论，并且原因在每个玩耍的动物中可能不相同。这个句子对应A选项的后半部分。所以A正确;B选项，原文第三段提到了玩耍可能会使动物们付出一些代价，其中一项代价就是动物可能会因为玩耍时发出的吵闹声而暴露于天敌前，但这仅是一种可能，没说很多年幼的动物已经受到伤害了，并且这个观点只是一个细节，是第三段提到的很多代价中的一个。所以B错误;C选项，根据第六段：Learning appropriate social behaviors is especially important in species that live in groups, like young monkeys that need to learn to control selfishness and aggression and to understand the give-and-take involved in social groups. They need to learn how to be dominant and submissive because each monkey might have to play either role in the future. 两句话提到猴子需要learn how to be dominant and submissive，但是文章没有提到其他的动物是否需要学习这些东西。所以C是错误的;D选项，原文第二段提到：Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. Determining the functions of play is difficult because the functions may be long-term, with beneficial effects not showing up until the animal’s adulthood.这两话表明玩耍的原因和功能被争论，因为每个物种玩耍的原因不同，并且玩耍的功能可能会在很长时间以后才能显现出来，而并不是选项中说的是因为种类太少。所以D不对。E选项，第三段中提到：Therefore, it results in the loss of fuel or energy that might better be used for growth or for building up fat stores in a young animal. Another potential cost of this activity is greater exposure to predators since play is attention-getting behavior. 所以，它导致能量的丢失，这些能量应该更好地被用于生长或积累脂肪储存。这个活动的另一个潜在代价就是更可能被暴露在天敌之下，因为玩耍是很吸引注意力的一种行为。这两句话与E的前半部分相同。第四段开头提到：The benefits of play must outweigh the costs, or play would not have evolved, according to Darwin’s theory. 玩耍的移除必须要超过代价，否则根据达尔文的进化论，玩耍就不会进化出来。这句话与E选项的后半部分相同。所以E正确;F选项，该选项提到的内容，神经学上的获益在第四段的实验中有提及，同时与第五题和第六题所对应的内容相同。第五段最开始就提到玩耍会促进肌肉组织的发育。第六段与第九题的句子简化题提到的内容，描述的就是从玩耍中学到适应群体的社交行为。

托福阅读TPO30原文参考译文：玩耍在发育中的角色

比起单独定义玩耍的概念，用例子去解释玩耍要更容易一些。在任何情况下，在动物间玩耍都包括了跳跃，奔跑，攀登，投掷，格斗和另外的一些动作，随之一起的也会有其他的物品或者动物。根据物种的不同，玩耍的目的主要包括社会交往，锻炼，或者探索。定义“玩耍”的难点之一是，玩耍过程中常常会包含一些与其他情况下相似的行为，例如在统治，捕食，竞争和搏斗中。因此，判断其是否在玩耍，要根据动物的目的来确认，常常通过行为本身很难分析其目的。

玩耍似乎是那些有着相对复杂的神经系统的动物的一个发育，发展的特征，主要包括了鸟类和哺乳类动物。玩耍的研究主要在灵长类和犬类之间大范围进行。动物到底为什么要玩耍仍然在文献研究中存在争议，并且每种物种玩耍的原因也不尽相同。确定玩耍的功能很难，因为它的功能是长期的，伴随着一些直到动物成年才会显现出来的有利影响。

玩耍对于动物个体并非没有一定的损失。玩耍通常是非常活跃的，涉及了一些空间动作，有时也会发出声音。所以，这些都会导致一些年幼的动物的本来可以用来生长或者储存脂肪的能量流失。另一个潜在的损失，这些活动是吸引注意的行为，因此通常都会使动物暴露在捕食者的视野内。大量的运动也会增加摔倒滑倒导致受伤的危险。

根据达尔文理论，玩耍的好处一定能抵消其损失，不然玩耍就不会一直存在并进化。其中一些潜在的好处就是直接关于动物的大脑和神经系统的健康发展。在一个研究学习中，两组小老鼠被养在不同的环境中。第一组成长在一个比较“富裕”的环境中，这样的环境使其可以与其他老鼠接触，和玩具玩儿，并且接受迷宫训练。另一组生活在“穷困” 的环境中，它们被养在独立笼子里，只有微弱的光照和极少的刺激。最后，结果表明生活在单一环境中的老鼠的大脑重量要比生活在复杂情况下的老鼠的大脑轻(即使它们被喂养的食物一样的)。另外一些研究表明，较大的刺激不仅会影响大脑的大小，而且也会增加神经细胞间的通道数量。因此，活跃的玩耍可以为大脑中的突触连接提供必要的刺激，特别是负责运动机能的小脑。

玩儿也会刺激肌肉组织的生长，并且能提供一些练习生存技能的机会。被捕食的种群，比如小鹿或者山羊，比如说，其代表动作就是突然快速逃生动作和转弯，相反捕食种群，比如猫科动物，练习潜行追踪，猛扑和撕咬。

玩耍使得年幼的动物暴漏在环境中，并且由于周围的成年动物一般不期望孩子去处理威胁和捕食者，所以它们可以在相对安全的环境中练习技能，玩耍也可以为求爱和交配的社交行为提供练习。学习适当的社交行为特别重要，尤其是对于群居动物，比如猴子，它们需要学会控制自己的自私和攻击性，学着去懂得妥协以融入群体。它们要学习怎么去统治和顺从因为每只猴子都会在将来扮演某个角色。大部分这类事情都在灵长类的长期的发展过程中被学习，期间它们有数不清的玩耍经验。

当然，也有危险，就是玩耍可能会被别的动物误会，或者不被当做玩耍，潜在地造成进攻。这个情况尤其在扮演包含练习正常的侵略性或者是捕食者行为。因此，许多物种都尤其明确的信号去表明玩耍。比如狗，它们用会摇尾巴，前腿趴下，撅着屁股来表示“以下行为都是逗你玩儿的!”

备战托福阅读满分宝典

1.词汇

从某种意义上来讲，词汇量的大小是TOEFL阅读理解高分的基础和关键。如果词汇量没有达到基本要求(五千以上)，纵然你有“葵花宝典”在手，也只能命丧ETS的“毒招”之下。所以，以牺牲词汇量为代价的技巧练习简直是一味巨毒无比的“五毒散”。

2.通过练习使学生养成高效的阅读方法--即所谓的阅读技巧

TOEFL的阅读量非常大，一般的中国考生根本无法把文章全部读完，所谓的“扫读法”、“跳读法”和“略读法”也只能适用于少数类型的文章，根本不能解决本质问题。那么，文章到底应该怎么读法呢?一句话，主动地阅读文章的关键部位。所谓主动是指不能象一般的阅读那样完全被动地接受信息，而应该不断的进行思考和预测;所谓关键部位，主要是每一段的开头和结尾部分。由于TOEFL的阅读理解文章全部选自于正式出版物，文章的逻辑结构非常完整和严谨，而且出现的逻辑模式也是屈指可数。经过系统的训练，考生的预测可以做到非常准确的程度。这样，通过阅读文章的几处关键部位，就能很快地把握整个文章的结构和内在的逻辑关系，也就解决了问题的70%。

3.解题训练

排除法恐怕是一直以来大多数学生在解阅读理题目时使用最多的方法。事实上，这种方法具有致命的缺点：干扰大、费时间。更有效和迅速的办法是读完题干之后，就在脑子反映出一个模糊的或者是不完整的答案，然后直接在选项中寻找接近的答案进行判断。这种能力必须在平时的训练和讲解中逐渐养成和加强，决非什么技巧之类的东西可以替代。

除了上述三方面的训练之外，如果能够对一些基本的背景知识加以补充的话，更能确保阅读理解的准确率和速度。

所以真正的TOEFL“宝典”并不是去学习一些技巧，而是在训练中养成一种无意识的使用技巧的习惯，做到“心无技巧”的忘我境界。

托福阅读TPO30原文+答案解析+译文

篇5：托福TPO9阅读第原文及答案解析

托福TPO9阅读原文Part2

Reflection in Teaching

Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. Educators T. Wildman and J. Niles (1987) describe a scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers. This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching.

Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish-a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be “drawn to these new, refreshing” conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy.“ The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner.

Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being ”utilitarian … and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection.“ Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation.

Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. This process took time and patience and effective trainers. The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection.

Wildman and Niles identify three principles that facilitate reflective practice in a teaching situation. The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. The second is the availability of sufficient time and space. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. The third is the development of a collaborative environment with support from other teachers. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment: ”Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea.“

The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of theirs. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect - for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit.

Paragraph 1: Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. Educators T. Wildman and J. Niles (1987) describe a scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers. This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching.

托福TPO9阅读题目Part2

1. The word ”justified“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○supported

○shaped

○stimulated

○suggested

2. According to paragraph 1, it was believed that reflection could help teachers

○understand intellectual principles of teaching

○strengthen their intellectual connection to their work

○use scientific fact to improve discipline and teaching

○adopt a more disciplined approach to teaching

Paragraph 2: Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish-a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be ”drawn to these new, refreshing“ conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy. The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner.

3. The word ”flourish“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ continue

○ occur

○ succeed

○ apply

4. All of the following are mentioned about the experimental strategy described in paragraph 2 EXCEPT:

○It was designed so that teachers would eventually reflect without help from others.

○It was used by a group of teachers over a period of years.

○It involved having teachers take part in discussions of classroom events.

○It involved having teachers record in writing their reflections about teaching.

5. According to paragraph 2, Wildman and Niles worried that the teachers they were working with might feel that

○ the number of teachers involved in their program was too large

○ the concepts of teacher reflection were so abstract that they could not be applied

○ the ideas involved in reflection were actually not new and refreshing

○ several years would be needed to acquire the habit of reflecting on their teaching

Paragraph 3: Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being ”utilitarian … and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection.“ Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation.

6. The word ”objective“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ unbiased

○ positive

○ systematic

○ thorough

7. According to paragraph 3, what did the teachers working with Wildman and Niles often fail to do when they attempted to practice reflection?

○Correctly calculate the amount of time needed for reflection.

○Provide sufficiently detailed descriptions of the methods they used to help them reflect.

○Examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms.

○Establish realistic goals for themselves in practicing reflection.

Paragraph 4: Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. This process took time and patience and effective trainers. The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection.

8. How is paragraph 4 related to other aspects of the discussion of reflection in the passage?

○It describes and comments on steps taken to overcome problems identified earlier in the passage.

○It challenges the earlier claim that teachers rarely have the time to think about their own or others' teaching.

○It identifies advantages gained by teachers who followed the training program described earlier in the passage.

○It explains the process used to define the principles discussed later in the passage.

Paragraph 5: Wildman and Niles identify three principles that facilitate reflective practice in a teaching situation. The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. The second is the availability of sufficient time and space. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. The third is the development of a collaborative environment with support from other teachers. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment: ”Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea.“

9. The word ”compelling“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ commonly held

○ persuasive

○ original

○ practical

Paragraph 6: The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of theirs. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect - for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit.

10. According to paragraph 6, teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because

○ it is not generally supported by teacher educators

○ the benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately

○ it is impossible to teach and reflect on one's teaching at the same time

○ they have often failed in their attempts to become reflective practitioners

11. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information

○The practice of being reflective is no longer simply a habit among teachers but something that is externally motivated.

○Most teachers need to explore ways to form the habit of reflection even when no external motivation exists.

○Many aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among teachers.

○There has not been enough exploration of why teachers practice reflection as a habit with or without external motivation.

Paragraph 4: Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. ■This process took time and patience and effective trainers. ■The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection.

Paragraph 5: ■Wildman and Niles identify three principles that facilitate reflective practice in a teaching situation. ■The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. The second is the availability of sufficient time and space. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. The third is the development of a collaborative environment with support from other teachers. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment: ”Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea.“

12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

However, changing teachers' thinking about reflection will not succeed unless there is support for reflection in the teaching environment.

Where could the sentence best fit?

13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Wildman and Niles have conducted research on reflection in teaching

●

Answer Choices

○Through their work with Virginia teachers, Wildman and Niles proved conclusively that reflection, though difficult, benefits both teachers and students.

○Wildman and Niles found that considerable training and practice are required to understand classroom events and develop the skills involved in reflection.

○Wildman and Niles identified three principles that teachers can use to help themselves cope with problems that may arise as a result of reflection.

○Wildman and Niles concluded that teachers need sufficient resources as well as the cooperation and encouragement of others to practice reflection.

○There are numerous obstacles to implementing reflection in schools and insufficient understanding of why teachers might want to reflect.

○Whether teachers can overcome the difficulties involved in reflection may depend on the nature and intensity of their motivation to reflect

托福TPO9阅读答案Part2

参考答案：

1. ○1

2. ○2

3. ○3

4. ○4

5. ○2

6. ○1

7. ○3

8.○1

9. ○2

10. ○2

11. ○3

12. ○3

13. Wildman and Niles found that

Wildman and Niles concluded that

There are numerous obstacles to

托福TPO9阅读翻译Part2

参考翻译：教学中的反思

教师被认为受益于反思实践--有意识地更深入思考、仔细地检查发生在他们自己教室里的事件和相互影响。教育家T o 怀尔德曼和J. o奈尔斯(1987)描述了一个在资深教师中开展反思实践的方案。这是合理的，因为人们认为反思的实践可以帮助老师们更加理性地对待他们的角色和从事的事业，并可以让他们能在教学准则中处理科学事实的缺乏和知识的不确定。

怀尔德曼和奈尔斯都特别喜欢研究在哪种情况下反思可能大量出现--一个几乎没有任何文献指导的课题。他们给弗吉利亚的一组教师设计了一个实验策略，并在几年内研究了这一组的40位教师。他们担心很多人可能认为沉浸在这种全新的教育概念中的结果就是，发现教师反思的抽象概念和现实之间的鸿沟太大而无法逾越。要反思像教学这样复杂的事件不是容易的。老师们都参加了关于教学事件计划的讨论，紧接着在工作人员的协助下去反思具体问题，然后是独立反思。

怀尔德曼和奈尔斯观察到系统教学反思需要一种以客观的方式来理解教室里发生事件的能力。他们起初认为参与研究的教师们太功利，并不是足够丰富和详细以促使系统反思的产生。教师们很少有机会和时间去客观地观察他们自己和其他老师的教学。更深的研究发现教师们更愿意评价事件而不是站在事件之外洞察一个事件的促进因素。

帮助这组教师修订他们关于课堂事件的认识变成了关键问题。这个过程需要时间和耐心以及有效的受训者。研究者认为训练同一个教师使他客观地看待事情需要大约20到30小时，而反思技巧的练习同样需要这么多时间。

怀尔德曼和奈尔斯确定了促进在教学环境中实现反思行为的3个原则。第一就是来自教学系统管理层的支持，这使得教师们明白反思实践的必要条件，并知道它与教学之间的联系。第二就是需要足够的时间和空间。项目中的教师们抱怨说让他们放弃别人当时的要求而为自己腾出时间去提升自己的反思能力是很困难的。第三就是以其他教师的支持为基础的亲密无间的环境。项目中的教师同样需要支持和鼓励以帮助他们去应付他们职业生活中的不如意的方面。怀尔德曼和奈尔斯作出了一个总结性的评论：”或许我们学到的最重要的观点就是教师不会因为这是好的，或者甚至是不可或缺的观念而自发地开展教学反思。“

怀尔德曼和奈尔斯的工作表明认识进行反思的某些困难的重要性。也有其他人知道这个，并指出相似的关于反思行为的教学职业文化阻碍。Zeichner 和Liston(1987)指出作为一个决策者的教师和作为一个将其他人观念付诸实施的教师之间，存在着角色上的不一致。比文化问题更基本的是动机问题。成为一个反思教学的执行者需要额外的付出(Jaworski,1993)而且只有一个模糊的目标，甚至不仅没有显而易见的回报，反而有易受责难的威胁。很少人直接质疑什么可能让一个教师想变成反思型教师。显然，使教师朝着反思行为奋斗的最直接的原因是师资培训者认为这是一件很好的事情。关于反思的动力存在许多未知的问题，例如外部驱动的反思的价值与通过习惯进行反思的价值是不同的。

篇6：托福TPO10阅读原文及答案解析Part1

Chinese Pottery

China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations-despite invasions and occasional foreign rule. A country as vast as China with so long-lasting a civilization has a complex social and visual history, within which pottery and porcelain play a major role.

The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial, trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and the era in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types-earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain-for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was an important group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of which were produced in earthenware.

The earliest ceramics were fired to earthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century B.C., high-temperature stonewares were being made with glazed surfaces. During the Six Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producing high-fired ceramics of good quality. Whitewares produced in Hebei and Henan provinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highly prized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one of the high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip-as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.

Trade between the West and the settled and prosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired were these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment-a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China-that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially for the European market.

Just as painted designs on Greek pots may seem today to be purely decorative, whereas in fact they were carefully and precisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear, so it is with Chinese pots. To twentieth-century eyes, Chinese pottery may appear merely decorative, yet to the Chinese the form of each object and its adornment had meaning and significance. The dragon represented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; the pomegranate indicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood for wedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fish leaping from waves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Only when European decorative themes were introduced did these meanings become obscured or even lost.

From early times pots were used in both religious and secular contexts. The imperial court commissioned work and in the Yuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factory was established at Jingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies. Long and often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assist in classifying pots, although these sometimes confuse an already large and complicated picture.

Paragraph 2: The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial, trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and the era in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types-earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain-for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was an important group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of which were produced in earthenware.

托福TPO10阅读题目Part1

1.The word ”status“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ origin

○ importance

○ quality

○ design

2. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of Chinese ceramics?

○ The function of ceramics remained the same from dynasty to dynasty.

○ The use of ceramics as trade objects is better documented than the use of ceramics as ritual objects.

○ There was little variation in quality for any type of ceramics over time.

○ Some religious sculptures were made using the earthenware type of ceramics.

Paragraph 3: The earliest ceramics were fired to earthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century B.C., high-temperature stonewares were being made with glazed surfaces. During the Six Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producing high-fired ceramics of good quality. Whitewares produced in Hebei and Henan provinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highly prized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one of the high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip-as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.

3. The word ”evolve“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ divided

○ extended

○ developed

○ vanished

4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○ While stonewares and porcelains are found throughout most historical periods, religious sculpture is limited to the ancient period.

○ Religious sculpture was created in most periods, but its history is less clear than that of stonewares or porcelains because some old forms continued to be used even when new ones were developed.

○ While stonewares and porcelains changed throughout history, religious sculpture remained uniform in form and use.

○ The historical development of religious sculpture is relatively unclear because religious sculptures sometimes resemble earthenware architectural ornaments.

5. Paragraph 3 supports all of the following concerning the history of the ceramic industry in China EXCEPT:

○ The earliest high-fired ceramics were of poor quality.

○ Ceramics produced during the Tang and Ming dynasties sometimes incorporated multiple colors.

○ Earthenware ceramics were produced in China before stonewares were.

○ The Song dynasty period was notable for the production of high quality porcelain ceramics.

Paragraph 4: Trade between the West and the settled and prosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired were these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment-a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China-that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially for the European market.

6. The word ”instigate“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ improved

○ investigated

○ narrowed

○ caused

7. According to paragraph 4, one consequence of the trade of Chinese ceramics was

○ the transfer of a distinctive blue pigment from China to the Middle East

○ an immediate change from earthenware production to porcelain production in European countries

○ Chinese production of wares made for the European market

○ a decreased number of porcelain vessels available on the European market

Paragraph 5: Just as painted designs on Greek pots may seem today to be purely decorative,whereas in fact they were carefully and precisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear, so it is with Chinese pots. To twentieth-century eyes, Chinese pottery may appear merely decorative, yet to the Chinese the form of each object and its adornment had meaning and significance. The dragon represented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; the pomegranate indicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood for wedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fish leaping from waves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Only when European decorative themes were introduced did these meanings become obscured or even lost.

8. The word ”whereas“ in the passage is closest in meaning to

○ while

○ previously

○ surprisingly

○ because

9. In paragraph 5, the author compares the designs on Chinese pots to those on Greek pots in order to

○ emphasize that while Chinese pots were decorative, Greek pots were functional

○ argue that the designs on Chinese pots had specific meanings and were not just decorative

○ argue that twentieth-century scholars are better able to understand these designs than were ancient scholars

○ explain how scholars have identified the meaning of specific images on Chinese pots

10. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 5 as being symbolically represented on Chinese ceramics?

○ Chinese rulers

○ love of homeland

○ loyally to friends

○ success in trade

11. Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about the decorations on Chinese pottery?

○ They had more importance for aristocrats than for ordinary citizens.

○ Their significance may have remained clear had the Chinese not come under foreign influence.

○ They contain some of the same images that appear on Greek pots

○ Their significance is now as clear to twentieth century observers as it was to the early Chinese.

Paragraph 6: From early times pots were used in both religious and secular contexts. The imperial court commissioned work and in the Yuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factory was established at Jingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies. Long and often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assist in classifying pots, although these sometimes confuse an already large and complicated picture.

12. The word ”these" in the passage refers to

○ religious ceremonies

○ descriptions

○ types of ware

○ pots

Paragraph 4: Trade between the West and the settled and prosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. ■So admired were these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. ■From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment-a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China-that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. ■In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. ■The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially for the European market.

13. Look at the four squares [■]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

Foreign trade was also responsible for certain innovations in coloring.

Where could the sentence best fit?

14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Ceramics have been produced in China for a very long time.

●

Answer choices

○ The Chinese produced earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain pottery and they used their ceramics for a variety of utilitarian, architectural, and ceremonial purposes.

○ The shape and decoration of ceramics produced for religious use in China were influenced by Chinese ceramics produced for export.

○ As a result of trade relations, Chinese ceramic production changed and Chinese influenced the ceramics production of other countries.

○ Chinese burial ceramics have the longest and most varied history of production and were frequently decorated with written texts that help scholars date them.

○ Before China had contact with the West, the meaning of various designs used to decorate Chinese ceramics was well understood.

○ Ceramics made in imperial factories were used in both religious and non-religious contexts.

篇7：托福TPO10阅读原文及答案解析Part1

参考答案：

1. ○2

2. ○4

3. ○3

4. ○2

5. ○1

6. ○4

7. ○3

8.○1

9. ○2

10. ○1

11. ○2

12. ○2

13. ○2

14. The Chinese produced

As a result of trade

Before China had contact

托福TPO10阅读翻译Part1

参考翻译：中国的陶瓷

尽管中国曾饱受入侵，偶尔丧失主权受制于外国，她仍然拥有世界上最源远流长的文明。像中国一个拥有悠久文明的大国，而陶瓷在其复杂的社会历史以及视觉历史中扮演了极为重要的角色。

在中国，每一个朝代陶瓷的功能和地位都是不同的，所以，根据它们的质量和制作年代的不同，可以是实用器物、陪葬品、贸易收藏品，甚至是礼器。对于容器、瓦片等建筑材料、模仿的物体或人物，陶瓷广义上被分为3大类：陶器、炻器和瓷器。另外，瓷器中还有很重要的一类就是宗教用途的雕塑，它们多数是陶质的。

尽管最早的陶瓷是在制陶的温度下烧制的，但是早在公元前15世纪，就已经出现了上釉的高温炻器。六朝时期(公元265-589年)，中国北方就有窑炉在烧制优质的高温瓷器。从7世纪到10世纪，河北以及河南省产的白瓷逐渐演变成为享有盛名的宋瓷(公元960-1279年)--长久以来被认为是中国陶瓷业历史中的巅峰时期之一。宗教雕塑的传统在大部分历史时期中都有延续，但是没有炻器和瓷器质地的雕塑描绘的那么清晰，有一种古老的习俗，就是将刻着新的宗教形象和建筑装饰的陶器作为陪葬品。瓷制品还包括汉朝的铅釉随葬陶俑，唐朝的三彩铅釉器皿和人物，明朝的以泥釉凸纹展现轮廓的三彩寺庙装饰物以及很多用来仿制贵重器皿的陪葬瓷器。

西方国家和繁荣稳定的历代中国朝代之间的贸易促使双方互相引入了新的形式和不同的技术。有一个意义最为深远的例子，公元9世纪精美中国瓷器出口到阿拉伯世界，带来巨大的影响。阿拉伯人对这些瓷器赞不绝口，于是他们鼓励制陶来仿制瓷器，并激励人们研究制作方法。中国人从中东获得了一种蓝色颜料--一种纯化的氧化钴，当时在中国并未出现，其中只含有少量的锰。中国境内发现的钴矿石含有大量的会产生暗蓝灰色的锰元素。17世纪，大量中国装饰类瓷器通过荷兰东印度公司的交易活动流入欧洲，这刺激和影响了广泛多样的瓷器的生产，特别是代尔夫特。中国人自己改良了很多种来自西方的特殊器皿，比如长嘴的瓶子，并专门为欧洲市场设计了一系列装饰性图案。

就像希腊的陶器上所绘的图案，今天看来也许纯粹是为了装饰，然而事实上在当时它们都是人们精心烧制而成的，它们的意义在当时非常明确，中国的瓷器也是如此。以20世纪的眼光来看，中国制造的陶瓷也许仅仅是装饰品，但是对于中国人来说每个物件的形状及它的装饰都有寓意非凡，影响深远。龙代表皇帝，凤代表皇后;石榴意味着多子，双鱼意味着幸福;鸳鸯寓意着婚姻幸福美满;松树、桃树以及鹤都是长寿的象征;鱼跃出水面意味着科举考试会高中。但是欧洲的装饰主题被引进后，这些寓意就变得不再那么流行甚至丢失了。

陶瓷器皿在很早期就已用于宗教和日常生活中。朝廷分派了制作工作，并于元朝(公元1279-1368年)在景德镇设立了一座官窑。陶瓷器皿在一些宗教仪式上也有着重要的地位。现存的关于不同类型的陶瓷器具很多长篇且抒情的描述可以帮助我们对其进行分类，尽管这些描述有时候会使得一幅大而复杂的画面显得凌乱。

代尔夫特陶器(荷兰产,通常是青色、白色)

篇8：TPO53托福阅读Passage2原文及答案解析

Sounds In The Film

Listen to part of a lecture in a film studies class.

Professor: Nowadays we take sound in films for granted. I mean you still might see black and white films occasionally. But you'll hardly ever see silent films anymore.

So it's interesting to note that the use of recorded sound was originally controversial. And some directors, uh, some filmmakers even thought it shouldn't be used, that it would destroy the purity of cinema, somehow reverse all the progress that had been made in the art of cinema. Abby?

Abby: What about all the sounds you hear in some silent movies? Like, you know, a loud sound when somebody falls down or something?

Professor: Okay, you're talking about a soundtrack added much later, which has over time become part of the film we know. But this recorded track didn't exist then.

And it's not that most people didn't want sound in films. It's just that the technology wasn't available yet. Don't forget that instead of recorded sound, there was often live music that accompanied movies in those days, like a piano player or a larger orchestra in the movie theater.

Also, think of the stage, the live theater, it has used wonderful sound effects for a long time. And if wanted, these could be produced during the viewing of a film. You know, the rolling of drums for thunder or whatever. But that wasn't as common.

Oh, and another thing, that they might have in movie theaters in the early days, was a group of live actors reading the parts to go along with the film, or, and this seems a particularly bad idea to us now, one person narrating the action, an early example of a long tradition of movie producers, the ones concerned mostly about making money, not having much confidence in their audience, thinking that people somehow couldn't follow the events otherwise.

So, it finally became possible to play recorded sound as part of the film in the 1920s. Trouble was, it wasn't always used to very good effect. First it was, you know, amazing to see somebody's mouth move at the same time you hear the words, or hear a door close when you see it closing on screen.

But that luster wears off, of course. And if you're a director, a filmmaker, what's the next step?

Abby: Well, you sound to enhance the movie right? Bring something more to it that wasn’t possible?

Professor: Yes. That’s exactly what directors, who were more interested in cinema as art, not commerce, were thinking.

But they also predicted that there would be a problem that sound would be misused and, boy, was it ever.Because the commercial types, the producers and so on, were thinking, “Okay. Now that sound is possible, let's talk as much as possible and forget about the fact that we're making a movie, that we have this powerful visual medium.”

So many of the films of the twenties were basically straight adaptations of successful shows from the stage, theatre. The name they used for sound films then was “talking films” and that was on the mark, since, well, all they pretty much did was talk and talk.

So, remedy? Well what was proposed by a number of filmmakers and theorists was the creative expressive use of sound, what they generally called nonsynchronous sound.

Okay, synchronous sound means basically that what we hear is what we see. Everything on the soundtrack is seen on the screen. And everything was recorded simultaneously, which… Well, since the sound technicians working on films often had experience with live radio that made sense to them. Recording the sound separately and adding it in afterward? Well, that idea was less obvious.

Anyway synchronous sound means the source of the sound is the image on the screen.Nonsynchronous sound then is…

Abby: The sound doesn't match the picture?

Professor: Right. Now we can look at this in various ways. But let's take it as literally as possible.

Music, unless we see the radio or the orchestra, that's nonsynchronous. If the camera shot is of the listener rather than the speaker that's nonsynchronous. If we hear, say, background sounds that aren't on the screen, that's nonsynchronous.

So, that doesn't seem so radical, does it? But again, those early producers didn't think their audiences could keep up with this.

Abby: Excuse me, but did you say earlier that some filmmakers actually advocated not using sound at all?

Professor: Well, yes. But that was a bit of an exaggeration, I guess. What I meant to say was that some filmmakers thought that the way the film sound was actually used was setting the art of filmmaking back.But everyone agreed that sounds solved some very difficult issues and offered potentially exciting tools.

TPO53托福阅读Passage2题目

Question 1 of 5

What is the lecture mainly about?

A. The influence of theater on early sound films

B. Conflicting views on uses of sound during the early days of sound films

C. The great progress in cinema after the development of sound

D. Viewer reactions to early sound films

Question 2 of 5

According to the professor, what types of sound were used in silent film theaters? Click on 3 answers

A. Live music performed in the theater

B. Sound effects created in the theater

C. Recorded sound tracks played with the film

D. Live narration during the film

E. Musical entertainment offered before the film

Question 3 of 5

What is the professor's attitude toward early movie producers?

A. He is critical of their influence on films.

B. He thinks they had little influence on films.

C. He thinks they understood what audiences wanted.

D. He acknowledges that they made progress possible.

Question 4 of 5

According to the professor, what was characteristic of sound films in the 1920s?

A. Dialogues between characters were kept to a minimum.

B. Many films were closely based on theater plays.

C. Musical sound tracks were added to most films.

D. Sounds were recorded separately and added to films later.

Question 5 of 5

What is an example of synchronous sound in a film?

A. A character hearing a train that is not visible

B. A past conversation being replayed in a character's mind

C. A character playing guitar and singing on screen

D. A song playing at the end of a film as credits appear on the screen

篇9：TPO托福阅读真题答案及解析

托福阅读真题：

The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems

Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.

An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.

The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.

Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.

Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.

TPO托福阅读题目

1. The word “particular” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Natural

○Final

○Specific

○Complex

2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?

○They occur at the end of a succession.

○They last longer than any other type of community.

○The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change.

○They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.

Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond?

○Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.

○The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.

○Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.

○A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s properties

Paragraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather of pests.

4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems?

○Pioneer communities

○Climax communities

○Single-crop farmlands

○Successional plant communities

Paragraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.

5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?

○The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.

○Ecologists often confuse the word “stability” with the word “resilience.”

○The exact meaning of the word “stability” is debated by ecologists.

○There are many different answers to ecological questions.

6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?

○They are more resilient than pioneer communities.

○They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.

○They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.

○They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.

Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.)

7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?

○They become less stable as they mature.

○They support many species when they reach climax.

○They are found in temperate zones.

○They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.

8. The word “guarantee” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Increase

○Ensure

○Favor

○Complicate

9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that “(A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle)”?

○To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example

○To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations

○To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity

○To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems

Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

10. The word “pales” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Increases proportionally

○Differs

○Loses significance

○Is common

Paragraph 7：Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.

○Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.

○Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.

○A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.

12.The word “adjacent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Foreign

○Stable

○Fluid

○Neighboring

13.Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time.

Answer choices

○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.

○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.

○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.

○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.

○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.

○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans.

★ 新托福听力之动植物场景解析

★ 托福阅读infer题的具体解析

★ 托福阅读经典加试:沙滩的形成试题及答案

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